第一篇：中国四大发明英文介绍

Hello everyone.Today I’m going to talk about the Four Great Inventions of the Ancient China.Do you know their name in English? If you don’t, let me introduce to you.Papermaking technology During the Eastern Han Dynasty, Cai Lun summed up the experience of forefathers, began to improve papermaking technology.He used a lot of simple things and produced the ‘Cai Hou’ paper.This kind of paper is thin and can write easily.He made enormous contribution for China.It was produced to other countries after about 500 years.Typography Typography is a kind of printing.Before printing was invented, people had to record information by writing or other ways.But it always took a lot of time.Then Bi Sheng invented typography and improved the printing technology.It began to take less time and become easy to record information.It’s a great achievement in the history.Compass

It was invented in the Warring States.After people found that a magnet could give directions, the compass was invented.It was a magnet made into a shape of spoon.When it stops, the spoon can point to the south.Then, it was produced to Europe in the 13th century.Not everywhere has a lighthouse, so a compass is very useful for sailing.Even at a new place people will not lose their way with a compass.Gunpowder Gunpowder is also called black powder.It was invented in Tang Dynasty, about 9th century.It began to be used in military affairs and made great contribution for China.Guns, aircrafts could be invented afterwards.Papermaking technology, typography, compass and gunpowder are Four Great Inventions of the Ancient China.They have made great contributions for people all over the world.As a Chinese person, we should remember and be proud of them.That’s all for my duty.Thank you for listening.1.sum

sum up 总结 2.forefather

['fɔ:,fɑ:ðə] 前人 3.be produced to

传入

4.typography [tai'pɔgrəfi] 活字印刷术 5.compass ['kʌmpəs] 指南针 6.the Warring States 战国 7.magnet ['mægnit] 磁铁,磁石 8.Gunpowder ['gʌn,paudə] 火药 9.military affairs 军事

第二篇：四大发明英文介绍

Four Great Inventions of Ancient China--printing Block Printing

With the inventions of paper and ink, stamper gradually became popular during the Jin Dynasty(265-420), which was the early form of Carved Type Printing.Block Printing first appeared in the Tang Dynasty(618-907).The text was first written on a piece of thin paper, then glued face down onto a wooden plate.The characters were carved out to make a wood-block printing plate, which was used to print the text.Wood-block printing took a long time as a new block had to be carved for every page in a book.It took a lot of time and energy as well as materials to prepare for printing a book, but it worked more effectively afterwards.This technology was gradually introduced to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and the Philippines.Yet, Block Printing had its drawbacks--all the boards became useless after the printing was done and a single mistake in carving could ruin the whole block.The frontispiece of the world's oldest surviving book, the Diamond Sutra printed in the year 868, was discovered at Dunhuang Cave, along the Silk Road.The book, in the form of a roll, is the earliest woodcut illustration in a printed book.Movable Type Printing

Block Printing was a costly and time-consuming process, for each carved block could only be used for a specific page of a particular book, besides, a single mistake in carving could ruin the whole block.However movable type changed all of that.In the Song Dynasty(960-1279), a man named Bi Sheng carved inpidual characters on identical pieces of fine clay.Each piece of movable type had on it one Chinese character which was carved in relief on a small block of moistened clay.After the block had been hardened by fire, the type became hard and durable and could be used wherever required.The pieces of movable type could be glued to an iron plate and easily detached from the plate.Each piece of character could be assembled to print a page and then broken up and redistributed as needed.When the printing was finished, the pieces were put away for future use.By the year1000, paged books in the modern style had replaced scrolls.Two color printing(black and red)was seen as early as 1340.This technology then spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and Europe.Later, German Johann Gutenberg invented movable type made of metal in the 1440s.Movable Type Printing developed very fast.Based on clay type, type made of wood, lead, tin and copper gradually appeared.Four Great Inventions of Ancient China--Gunpowder

The invention of gunpowder had a close relationship with the advanced ancient workmanship of smelting industry.People began to know a lot of chemistry knowledge about the nature of different mineral materials during the process of smelting operation.With the knowledge, ancient necromancers tried to seek the elixir of immortality from certain kinds of ores and fuel.Although they failed to get what they were looking for, they discovered that an explosive mixture could be produced by combining sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter(potassium nitrate).This mixture finally led to the invention of gunpowder although its exact date of invention still remains unknow

Many historical materials indicate that gunpowder first appeared before the Tang Dynasty(618-907).From 300 to 650AD several recipes were written about inflammable mixtures.Some historians date the invention of gunpowder at 850AD when a Taoist book warned of three specific elixir formulas as too dangerous to experiment.The military applications of gunpowder began in the Tang Dynasty.Explosive bombs filled with gunpowder and fired from catapults were used in wars.During the Song and Yuan dynasties(960-1368), the military applications of gunpowder became common and some other weapons like “fire cannon”, “rocket”, “missile” and “fireball” were introduced.In the Yuan Dynasty(1279-1368), the method of powder-making was introduced to the Arab world and Europe, bringing a series of revolutions to weapon manufacturing, as well as to stratagem and tactics on the battlefield.From Italy the making of gunpowder soon spread to other European countries, and by the 1350s it had become an effective weapon on the battlefield.Four Great Inventions of Ancient China--Paper

(来源：英语麦当劳www.teniu.cc)

China was the first nation who invented paper.The earliest form of paper first appeared in the Western Han Dynasty(206BC-23AD), but the paper was generally very thick, coarse and uneven in their texture, made from pounded and disintegrated hemp fibers.The paper unearthed in a Han tomb in Gansu Province is by far the earliest existing ancient paper, tracing back to the early Western Han Dynasty.In the Eastern Han Dynasty(25-220), a court official named Cai Lun made a new kind of paper from bark, hemp, rags, fishnet, wheat stalks and other materials.It was relatively cheap, light, thin, durable and more suitable for brush writing.The art of paper-making spread east to Korea and Japan at the beginning of the seventh century(the end of the Sui Dynasty and the beginning of the Tang Dynasty).In the eighth century, along with the Silk Road, the Arab countries began to learn how to make paper.It took about 400 years for paper to traverse the Arab world to Europe.In the 14th century many paper mills were established in Italy, from where the workmanship of paper-making spread to the European countries such as Germany.The Italians vigorously produced the material and exported large amounts of it, dominating the European market for many years.In the 16th century, the art of paper-making appeared in Russia and Holland, and it spread to Britain in the 17th century.(来源：英语麦当劳http://www.teniu.cc)

Before paper was invented, Qin Shihuang, the first emperor in Chinese history, had to go over 120 kilos of official documents written on bamboo or wooden strips.With the invention of paper, the popularization of knowledge has turned into reality.The invention of paper is an epoch-making event in human history.Four Great Inventions of Ancient China--Compass

Early in the Spring and Autumn Period(770-476BC), while mining ores and melting copper and iron, Chinese people chanced upon a natural magnetite that attracted iron and pointed fixedly north.In the Warring States Period(206BC-23AD), after constant improvement the round compass came into being.Referred to as a “South-pointer”, the spoon-or ladle-shaped compass is of magnetic lodestone, and the plate is of Bronze.The circular center represents Heaven, and the square plate represents Earth.The handle of the spoon points south.The spoon is a symbolic representation of the Great Bear.The plate bears Chinese characters which denote the eight main directions of north, north-east, east, etc.This type of compass has been scientifically tested and found to work tolerably well.By the time of the Tang dynasty(618-907)and the beginning of the Northern Song Dynasty(960-1127), Chinese scholars had devised a way to magnetize iron needles, by rubbing them with magnetite, and then suspending them in water.They also observed that needles cooled from red heat and held in the north-south orientation(the earth's axis)would become magnetic.These more refined needle compasses could then be floated in water(wet compass), placed upon a pointed shaft(dry compass)or suspended from a silk thread, etc.Consequently, they were much more useful for navigation purposes since they were much more portable.During the Song Dynasty(960-1279)many trading ships were then able to sail as far as Saudi Arabia without getting lost.The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty.The spread of the compass to Europe opened the oceans of the world to travel and led to the discovery of the New World.

第三篇：中国四大发明之一火药

中国四大发明之一火药

火药是中国古代四大发明之一，至今令炎黄子孙引以自豪，辞典中这样记载：火药——中国人发明，是一种硫磺、硝酸钾、木炭的混合物，最早被中国人用作焰火、爆竹和火箭的纵火剂。揭开了火药的秘密，在现代人眼里或许不以为然，但当科学尚处在蒙昧之中时，火药却是神秘之物。《太平广记》中记述了一则故事：有位名叫杜子春的年轻人，为寻求炼丹之术，去一个僻静遥远的地方拜见一位炼丹老人。天色已晚，老人叫他歇息在炼丹的地方，并告诉他千万不可乱说乱动。夜里，杜子春一觉醒来，发现炼丹着火了，火焰呼呼往上蹿，他记着老人的告诫，一动不动，眼睁睁看着火苗燃到屋顶，把房子烧了。据此人们可想象出“火药”这个名字，意思就是“着火的药”。这是人们认识火药的第一种性能——燃烧。又因为火药中的主要成份硝和硫磺在西汉时就被当作药品，用来治病，而且古代炼丹家为炼制“长生不老药”，终年隐居深山，精心选配各种药物原料，反复提炼，多方试验，在他们的辛勤努力下，虽然没有得到长生不老的仙丹，却发现发明了许多鲜为人知的东西。火药就是出自炼丹家之手的一大成果。那时正处在盛行“仙道”学说的时代，由此火药便因药得名。

据《诸家神品丹法》一书记载：将二两硫磺、二两硝石，研成粉末，放在销银锅或砂罐内，挖一土坑，把锅放在坑内，使与地平，四周用土填实，再将三个皂角子，烧红成炭，逐个放入锅内，使硫磺和硝石烧起焰火，待焰火将熄时，再加木炭3斤来煅，待炭消三分之一后退火，趁未冷却时取出混合物。这就是“伏火法”。808年，又有人创造“伏火矾法”：用硝石、硫磺各二商，马兜铃（含炭素）三钱半，研成粉末拌匀，放在药罐内，埋入地坑，放进一块熟火，烟便腾起。在应用伏火法的同时，人们发现这三种物质一起加热燃烧，反应异常剧烈，似有爆炸的可能，因而格外小心。那时之所以未发生爆炸，是因为所用的物质是天然原料，未经提纯精炼，所以产生的力量微弱，未充分显示其爆炸性能。随着炼丹家们不断的改进，大约到晚唐时期（9世纪末），我国首创的黑色火药问世，并很快应用于军事。

在此之前，硫磺和硝常常作为纵火剂在战争中发挥威力。三国时，吴国攻蜀国，用船装载茅草。兵士们每人手执茅草一把，内藏硫磺和陷硝，自带火种，另一手拿刀枪，接近敌阵后，顺风点火，火势蔓延700里，蜀军大败，迫使刘备退居白帝城，那时兵家们用硫磺和硝作为燃烧剂使用，是采用火攻时的有效物质。诸葛亮带兵攻打陈仓城时，动用云梯近百乘，一乘可立十数人，周围用木板遮护，再加上短梯软索，兵士如蚁沿城墙攀登，谁想城上守军三千，各执火箭，分布四面，火箭齐发，云梯尽燃大火，无法攀附。诸葛亮又派冲车，守军用石块凿眼穿绳，甩打下来，冲车被打折，就这样昼夜相攻，20余日无计可破。这里所用的火箭，只是带有纵火剂的弓箭，主要起助燃作用。还有一次，诸葛亮派兵攻打乌戈国，将黑油柜安置在山谷中，油柜内预先安置火炮，名叫“地雷”，一炮中藏九枚，30步埋一个，中间用打通节的竹竿引出药线，一发动，出损石裂。这是《三国演义》中的描达，按史料记载，地雷是宋代产生的兵器，所以三国时使用地雷，也只是演义中的想象而已，但是用纵火剂——硫磺和硝等物质进行火攻，却是事实。904年，郑璠进攻豫章时，曾经“发机飞火”，据考证，这是我国历史上第一次将火药应用于军事的记载。唐代晚期，火药从炼丹家手里传到军中，兵器家们于10世纪初造出火药火器—一飞火，并应用于战争。火器的出现是中国古代兵器史上的一大转折，从此，冷兵器与火器并存了很长一段时期之后，进入火器时代。冷兵器与火器并用时代开始于北宋。

自960年，赵匡胤建立宋王朝，中国结束了唐中叶以来长期的封建割据局面。天下统一，国泰民安，社会生产得到相应发展。但这时北方的辽、金、西夏游牧民族崛起，势力扩张，不断侵扰内地。他们的军队以骑兵为主，兵士剽悍骁勇，骑术非凡，宋军无法抵挡。由此，旧有的作战方式及兵器装备都急待改进，宋朝政府不得不加强军备建设，所以宋代是兵器大改革的重要时期。宋代军事工业相当庞大且完备。军器制造部门有专门的机构来研究制造各种炸药和火器。为了鼓励研制兵器者，宋朝政府规定给予兵器发明者、创造者以奖励和支持，所以那时常有人把自己新创制的兵器献给朝廷。据《宋史》记载：970年，兵部令史冯继升等提出了制火箭法。1000年，神卫水师队长唐福推出火箭、火环、火蒺藜。1002年，知宁化军刘永锡向朝廷献上创制的火炮。从中我们可以看出那时火药火器的发明创造十分兴盛。宋仁宗时

（1023～1063年）编著的《武经总要》一书，综述了当时的火器有10多种，如火箭、火炮、火药鞭箭、引火球、蒺藜火球、铁咀火鹞、竹火鹞、霹雳火球、烟球、毒药烟球等，并详细记述了火药的成分。比如载炮火药有14种成分配制，其中硝石约49％，硫磺约25％；蒺藜火药成分有10种，硝石约50％，硫磺约25％。这两种配方的比率十分接近于现代黑色火药的组配率。这时期的火药已具有燃烧、毒气、烟幕等不同作用。火器的杀伤威力大小主要在于火药配方的科学合理及火药性能发挥的多少，其次才是发射机制的改进和完善。宋代火药尽管已有相当的发展，但其处方还没有严格的定量比例，原料成分复杂，纯度不够，因而仍不能有效地发挥火药的全部性能。到明代，火药的发展达到了更高水平。1621年《武备志》中记载了提炼硝磺和配制各种火药的处方达30多种，其中铳火药的处方是：硝1两，硫1.4钱，柳炭1.8钱。硝石占75％，硫磺占11％，木炭占14％，这种配合比例与现代黑色火药的标准组配率基本一致。这时期火药的性能包括烟幕、毒气、燃烧、杀伤、催泪、喷嚏、昏迷等，这就大大提高了火药的威力。同时，制造火药的方法也趋于细密，原料呈颗粒状，不再是粉末，这样便于发射。后来，火药又分为直击的火药和横击的火药两种。直击火药按硝

九、磺一的比例配制；横击火药按硝

七、磺三的比例配制。火药成分也经过提炼更加纯净。火药的发展是火器制造技术不断提高的一个重要前提。我国发明的火药和火器不仅在中国古代战争中发挥了重要作用，而且先后传入西方，为世界兵器发展做出了重大贡献。

宋代军队在对金作战中，依仗火器的威力，占据了相当的优势，不仅能有效抵挡敌人骑兵队的冲击，而且常把敌兵击溃。金兵深知火器的厉害，千方百计想得到制造火药和火器的技术。后来金军攻占汴京后，有人把这一技术献给金人，金兵如获至宝，立即动手大量制造火药火器，用来反击来军。在金人手中还推陈出新，研制出一新的火器。1214年，金宣宗南迁汴京，蒙古人夺取了中都，金的一些制造火药火器的技术工匠有的被俘，有的投降。由此金人所掌握的火药火器制造技术，开始为蒙古人所用。1218年成吉思汗统帅大军西征，从此中国的火药和火器传到了中东，随后又经阿拉伯人之手传入欧洲。

很早以前，火药曾随炼丹术一起传入阿拉伯国家，阿拉人称“硝”为“中国雪”，当地语叫“巴鲁得”；波斯人称之为“中国盐”。人们只用它炼丹治病，还不知道用于军事。古代阿拉伯和欧洲的战争中，曾使用过多种纵火剂，其主要成分有沥青、硫磺、松脂、石油等，不仅没有火药，也没有制造火药的主要原料——硝。当蒙古骑兵的铁蹄踏入中亚西亚，直至地中海沿岸的大马士革时，阿拉伯人才见识了火器、火药。

元军西征使用了大量火器，1220年元军攻击尼沙城时，修筑了一座高炮台，使用20门弩炮对城内连续轰击了15天，发射了大量火箭、毒火罐、火炮弹。1258年，蒙古兵围攻黑衣大食的都城巴格达时，使用过铁火炮或叫震天雷，阿拉伯人叫“铁瓶”。据波兰史学家记载，当蒙古兵攻击华沙的时候：

“蒙古军施展妖术，但见大旗一挥，出现了伸出X形脑袋的妖物，从它嘴里喷出一阵烟雾，发出的臭味令人难忍，波兰军队士兵个个不敢正视，这一仗死伤了许多人。”其实蒙古兵使用的“妖物”就是一只毒药烟毯，这种毒药烟毯，重5斤，毒药成分有草乌头、芭豆、狼毒、砒霜等，加入火药成分硫磺、焰硝、末炭末等，捣合成毯，用麻绳串住，长1.2丈，重半斤，为弦子。再用故纸、沥青、麻皮、黄蜡等物捣合涂在外表，用炮放出，毒气熏人，可致人口鼻出血，中毒身亡。蒙古军西征的同时，将随身携带火器及其制造技术，经被俘投降者之手一并传给了阿拉伯人。据阿拉伯文兵书记载，当时传入阿拉伯国家的火器有两种，一种叫“契丹火枪”，一种叫“契丹火箭”。到14世纪初，阿拉伯人把这两种火器发展成为两种“马达发”（阿拉伯语“火器”）。一种是用一根短筒，内装火药，筒口安置石球，点燃引线后，火药发作，石球射出以击人。另一种是用一根长筒，内装火药和铁球，然后再装上一支箭，临阵点燃线后，火药发作，冲击铁球，同时将箭推出。很明显，这两种火器与我国南宋时的“火筒”和“突火枪”类似。

中国古代以硝石、硫黄、木炭或其他可燃物为主要组分，点火后能速燃或爆炸的混合物。因为硝石、硫黄等在中国古代都是药物，混合后易点火并猛烈燃烧，故称为火药。现代黑火药是由中国古代火药发展而来。火药是人类掌握的第一种爆炸物，是中国古代的四大发明之一，对于世界文化的发展曾起重大作用。

火药的起源：火药不是历史上个别人物的发明，它起源于中国古代的炼丹术，在火药发明的过程中，炼丹家的作用特别重要。中国古代火药的主要成分硝石和硫黄，以及硫黄的砷化物，都是炼丹术中常用的药物。西汉末东汉初的炼丹书《三十六水法》中，有名为“硫黄水”、“雄黄水”、“雌黄水”的丹方，用硝石与硫黄、雄黄和雌黄在竹筒中以水法共炼。

隋末唐初医学家、炼丹家孙思邈（581～682），史称药王。选录入《诸家神品丹法》的《孙真人丹经》，相传是孙思邈所撰，记载有多种“伏火”之法。这类伏火之法，虽然炼丹家的原意，是为了使硫黄改性，避免燃烧爆炸，以达到炼丹的目的；但同时使他们认识到，上述丹方中含有硝石、硫黄和“烧令存性”（即炭化）的皂角子或马兜铃粉，三者混合具有燃烧爆炸的性能，从而发明了原始火药。故在炼丹时，有必要采取安全措施，将药罐放在坑内，与地平，四面并以土填实，甚至用湿纸盖，方砖捺，以土冢之。炼丹家正是通过他们的长期实践，才发现硝石、硫黄和木炭等混合物的爆炸性能，因此，至迟在808年以前，含硝、硫、炭三组分的火药已经在中国诞生。

火药的早期军事应用：到10世纪，关于试制和试验火药兵器的记载已经屡见于文献。北宋初官修的《武经总要》，记载有火炮、蒺藜火毬和毒药烟毬的火药配方。这3个配方是世界历史上最早冠以火药名称，并直接应用于3种实战武器的火药。但应指出，这些配方中硝含量低，还含有大量其他组分，通常只能速燃，用以纵火、发烟或散毒，还是一种低级火药，是近代火药的雏形。

火药技术的发展：10～14世纪，由于战争频繁，火药兵器得到发展，火药性能不断提高，火药技术不断改进。在文献中有不少对于当时各种火药兵器威力的描述。北宋靖康元年（1126），金人攻宋都汴京，“夜发霹雳炮以击贼，军皆惊呼”（李纲《靖康传信录》卷二）。南宋绍兴三十一年（1161），金军渡江攻宋，“舟中忽放一霹雳炮，盖以纸为之，„„自空而下，„„其声如雷，纸裂而石灰散为烟雾，眯其人马之目，人物不相见。„„逐大败之”（杨万里《诚斋集》卷四十四）。金天兴元年（1232），赤盏合喜守汴京时，“其守城之具有火炮名‘震天雷’者，铁礶盛药，以火点之，炮起火发，其声如雷，闻百里外，所爇围半亩之上，火点著甲铁皆透”（《金史》卷一百十三）。元至元十四年（1277），元兵攻静江（今广西桂林），静江破，守将“娄钤辖犹以二百五十人守月城不下”。元军围之十余日，“娄乃令所部入拥一火炮燃之，声如雷霆，震城土皆崩，烟气涨天外，兵多惊死者，火熄入视之，灰烬无遗矣”（《宋史》卷四百五十一）。元至元十七年（1280），“维扬炮库之变为尤酷。„„碾硫之际，光焰倏起，即而延燎，火抢奋起，迅如惊蛇。„„未几透入炮房，诸炮并发，大声如山崩海啸，倾城骇恐，„„远至百里外，屋瓦皆震„„。事定按视，则守兵百人皆糜碎无余，楹栋悉寸裂，或为炮风扇至十余里外。平地皆成坑谷，至深丈余。四比居民二百余家，悉罹奇祸，此亦非常之变也”（周密撰《癸辛杂识·炮祸》）。

据上述文献描述的各种火器威力，很明显地可以看出，火药性能在10～14世纪中是逐步提高的。12世纪的霹雳炮，已能用火药喷火的反推力，把它推上空中，反映出其火药性能比10、11世纪用以纵火的火药有了提高。13世纪，用于装填铁火炮（震天雷）的火药，能将生铁外壳炸成碎片，打穿铁甲。一枚铁火炮爆炸后，使城土皆崩，城内250人死亡，士兵多有惊死者。而在炮房爆炸中，能形成丈余弹坑，甚至楹栋有被炮风扇出数里者。这些事实充分说明当时火药的威力之大。

明朝对火药技术有大量文字记载，至今尚存的明代《火龙神器阵法》是继《武经总要》之后的另一部重要文献，它反映了14～15世纪及其前后火药技术的进展，其中载有多种三组分火药配方。在戚继光所著《纪效新书》中，对火药配方和制造工艺均有详细记述。鸟铳药配方含硝酸钾75.8%，硫10.6%，炭13．6%，与现代标准军用黑火药基本相同。当时已制作粒状火药，所载工艺翔实可行。还记载了检验火药性能的方法：“只将人手心擎药二钱，燃之，而手心不热，即可入铳。但燃过有黑星白点，与手心中烧热者，即不佳。”说明对火药燃速和反应的完全性提出了很高的要求。

火药理论的探索：明朝对火药配方和性能已作了一些初步的理论探索，有关记载最早见于唐顺之的《武编》（1549年辑），后来茅元仪收入《武备志》（1621年刊印），名之曰“火药赋”。这是一篇关于火药的学术文章，对硝、硫、炭三种组分的作用和相互关系作了定性的说明，特别是明确了硝石在火药中的重要作用，是符合科学原理的。明朝科学家宋应星在其名著《天工开物》（1637年初刊）中对火药性能作了理论探索，他说：“凡火药，硫为纯阳，硝为纯阴，两精逼合，成声成变，此乾坤幻出神物也。”又说：“消性至阴，硫性至阳。阴阳两神物相遇于无隙可容之中。”他借用中国古代传统的阴阳对立转化之说，形象地描述硝硫在一定条件下发生的氧化还原反应。他和茅元仪一样认为硝性竖而硫性横，但又进一步明确提出了与现代“发射”和“爆炸”大致相当的“直击”和“爆击”两个概念。将硝硫比例与性能联系起来，对实践经验作了总结。

概观中国对火药的探索、发明和发展，自魏晋南北朝以来，古代化学家（炼丹家）们利用早在汉朝已经掌握了的金石药物硝、硫，经过长期的炼丹实践，至迟在唐宪宗元和三年（808）以前已经发明了火药，并在五代末北宋初（10世纪）用以制造出纵火用的火药兵器。在宋、元两代不断创造新火器的实践中，火药性能也不断提高，炸弹用火药和金属管形射击火器用的发射药等均已制造出来，并在明朝达到了成熟的程度。到明朝后期，科学家们还继续在理论上作了一些探索。硝 硫磺 木炭 火药是中国的发明 火药的制造 在公元 1550 年,法国人发明了「湿制法」：先将各个成分浸水润湿,然后混合起来作成大饼状,在晒干或风干后打碎,用细筛子筛过,火药粉会变成小颗粒状（grain）,然后装在大桶里不停翻搅（tumbling）,磨掉颗粒的稜角并加入石墨抛光。用这种方法制造出来的火药各成份分子间构成比较稳定的结构,长程运输时不易分解,而且颗粒间的燃烧空间较大,容易均匀地燃烧；由于制程的关系,这种火药被称为「corned」火药。不过这也加强火药的威力,使得许多原来还算安全的枪炮都变得有膛炸的危险。现代火药配方的比例 7.5:1:1.5（硝：硫：碳）也是在 19 世纪时确定下来的。对西方世界来说,硝的取得一直是制造火药时最大的问题。由于欧洲基本上不产天然硝,只能从人畜排泄物堆肥中取得（尿中的氮酸经自然化学反应与钾结合而成）,在 18 世纪之前大大限制了火药的使用。英国在17世纪时还有专门的集硝官（salt-peter man）,随时可以闯入人家中把厕所、马厩地面挖起来搜集天然硝,英王查理一世还下令全国所有这些地方的地面不准铺石板或木板；这直到英国取得印度,才有比较充裕的货源供应。这个现象也反映在美国独立革命之中,华盛顿麾下的军队整个战争期间一直为火药供应不足的问题所困扰。到了 19 世纪中叶,在智利发现了大量的硝酸盐矿（sodium nitrate）。这些盐类和氯化钾（可从海水中大量提炼）反应后可以便宜地制造出硝酸钾,这才解决了硝的供应问题。后来,美国人拉马特?杜邦在公元 1858 年发明了使用硝酸盐来直接制作火药的方法,成本要比使用硝酸钾便宜很多。用硝酸盐制造的火药虽然爆炸威力较用硝酸钾的小,但由于便宜,十分适合用在挖矿开路之用。后来就将使用硝酸钾的火药称为 a 类火药,用硝酸盐的则是 b 类火药。根据颗粒来分的话,又可分为从 f,2f,直到 7f 等 7 级。f 级颗粒最大,7f 最小。如果经过抛光手续的话再加一个 g。所以可以看到火药的分级如 2fag,3fb 等。

第四篇：202_中国清明节英文介绍

202_中国清明节英文介绍

中国清明节英文怎么介绍？请往下阅读：（更多相关信息请关注聘才网）Qingming Festival The Qingming(Pure Brightness)Festival is one of the 24 seasonal pision points in China, falling on April 4-6 each year.After the festival, the temperature will rise up and rainfall increases.It is the high time for spring plowing and sowing.But the Qingming Festival is not only a seasonal point to guide farm work, it is more a festival of commemoration.The Qingming Festival sees a combination of sadness and happiness.This is the most important day of sacrifice.Both the Han and minority ethnic groups at this time offer sacrifices to their ancestors and sweep the tombs of the diseased.Also, they will not cook on this day and only cold food is served.The Hanshi(Cold Food)Festival was usually one day before the Qingming Festival.As our ancestors often extended the day to the Qingming, they were later combined.On each Qingming Festival, all cemeteries are crowded with people who came to sweep tombs and offer sacrifices.Traffic on the way to the cemeteries becomes extremely jammed.The customs have been greatly simplified today.After slightly sweeping the tombs, people offer food, flowers and favorites of the dead, then burn incense and paper money and bow before the memorial tablet.In contrast to the sadness of the tomb sweepers, people also enjoy hope of Spring on this day.The Qingming Festival is a time when the sun shines brightly, the trees and grass become green and nature is again lively.Since ancient times, people have followed the custom of Spring outings.At this time tourists are everywhere.People love to fly kites during the Qingming Festival.Kite flying is actually not limited to the Qingming Festival.Its uniqueness lies in that people fly kites not during the day, but also at night.A string of little lanterns tied onto the kite or the thread look like shining stars, and therefore, are called “god's lanterns.” The Qingming Festival is also a time to plant trees, for the survival rate of saplings is high and trees grow fast later.In the past, the Qingming Festival was called “Arbor Day”.But since 1979, “Arbor Day” was settled as March 12 according to the Gregorian calendar.清明是我国的二十四节气之一。由于二十四节气比较客观地反映了一年四季气温、降雨、物候等方面的变化，所以古代劳动人民用它安排农事活动。但是，清明作为节日，与纯粹的节气又有所不同。节气是我国物候变化、时令顺序的标志，而节日则包含着一定的风俗活动和某种纪念意义。因此，这个节日中既有祭扫新坟生别死离的悲酸泪，又有踏青游玩的欢笑声，是一个富有特色的节日。清明节是我国传统节日，也是最重要的祭祀节日，是祭祖和扫墓的日子。扫墓俗称上坟，祭祀死者的一种活动。汉族和一些少数民族大多都是在清明节扫墓。由于清明与寒食的日子接近，而寒食是民间禁火扫墓的日子，渐渐的，寒食与清明就合二为一了，而寒食既成为清明的别称，也变成为清明时节的一个习俗，清明之日不动烟火，只吃凉的食品。按照旧的习俗，扫墓时，人们要携带酒食果品、纸钱等物品到墓地，将食物供祭在亲人墓前，再将纸钱焚化，为坟墓培上新土，折几枝嫩绿的新枝插在坟上，然后叩头行礼祭拜，最后吃掉酒食回家。

与清明节扫墓的悲哀相反，人们在这个春光明媚的日子里，也一样是可以享受生活的。放风筝也是清明时节人们所喜爱的活动。每逢清明时节，人们不仅白天放，夜间也放。夜里在风筝下或风稳拉线上挂上一串串彩色的小灯笼，象闪烁的明星，被称为“神灯”。清明前后，春阳照临，春阳照临，春雨飞洒，种植树苗成活率高，成长快。因此，自古以来，我国就有清明植树的习惯。有人还把清明节叫作“植树节”。植树风俗一直流传至今。1979年，人大常委会规定，每年三月十二日为我国植树节。这对动员全国各族人民积极开展绿化祖国活动，有着十分重要的意义。

第五篇：中国矿业大学英文介绍

China University of Mining and Technology(CUMT)is one of the key national universities under the direct administration of the China’s Ministry of Education.It is also one of the universities which host a graduate school with the approval of the Ministry of Education, and one of that in the national “211 project”, a government program designed to support and improve top-level institutions of higher learning in China.CUMT grew out of Jiaozuo School of Railroad and Mines, which was

established in 1909 and was later expanded and renamed Jiaozuo Institute of Technology.In 1950, Jiaozuo Institute of Technology moved to Tianjin and was renamed the China Institute of Mining and Technology(CIMT).It became the first higher learning institution in the field of mining in China.In 1952, during a national readjustment of higher learning institutions, the

mining engineering departments of Tsinghua University and the now-defunct Beiyang and Tangshan Railroad Universities were merged into CIMT.In 1953, the Institute moved to Beijing and was renamed Beijing Institute of Mining and Technology(BIMT), where it became one of the eight most renowned institutes in Beijing.In 1960, BIMT was rated a key university in the nation.During the period of the Cultural Revolution, it moved to Sichuan Province and was renamed the Sichuan

Institute of Mining and Technology.In 1978, with the approval of the State Council, a new campus was established in Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, with the school name restored to CIMT, and was rated by the government as one of China’s 88 key state universities.In 1988, the institution was formally renamed the China University of Mining and Technology(CUMT), and in 1997, a second campus in Beijing was established with the approval of the Ministry of Education.As the oldest higher learning institution with a focus on mining engineering in the country, CUMT has been and continues to receive much attention and support from leaders of the central government.On May 11, 1988, Deng Xiaoping inscribed in his own handwriting the name of CUMT(it appears on the cover of this brochure)which is a mark of great distinction in Chinese culture.On January 19, 1996, then President Jiang Zemin and vice-premier Wu Bangguo personally inspected the facilities for coal water mixture preparation technology on the Beijing campus.On May 18, 1999, Jiang Zemin wrote the inscription for CUMT’s 90th anniversary as “Be enterprising and innovative in exploration, be rigorous and meticulous in academic pursuits, and build the China University of Mining and Technology into a first-class university of science and technology in the field of energy resources.” On June 16, 1999, former premier Li Peng wrote a second inscription entitled “Develop the cause of energy resource science and education.Train outstanding talents for the new century.” Former vice-premier Li Lanqing visited the school on October 8, 1999, followed by Mrs.Chen Zhili, the State Councilor and former Minister of Education, who paid a visit in May 202_.After over 90 years’ growth, a multidisciplinary system has emerged at CUMT.The system focuses on mining engineering and gives priority to engineering

disciplines.At present, on the main campus in Xuzhou, there are 19 schools with 60 undergraduate programs.CUMT offers 50 additional doctoral programs and 100 master’s programs.CUMT now has 8 key disciplines rated by the Chinese government as national priorities in education, and 13 recognized as key on the

ministerial or provincial level.Schools hosting the 8 key disciplines are able to invite special professors both in China and from abroad to help with discipline development under the “Specially Engaged Professorship under the Yangtze River Scholar Award Project”.Post-doctoral research opportunities are also available in 11 fields.During the ninth “Five-year Plan” period in 1996-202_, the “211 Project” was implemented, and during that period, CUMT achieved remarkable success in 12 research projects highlighted by three theoretical and five technical achievements of international standing.The university continues to operate under the “211 Project” today.CUMT boasts a large and well-qualified staff.The main campus in Xuzhou hosts more than 3,000 staff with over 1,400 full-time academics, 230 professors and 333 associate professors.The university’s current academic staff includes 6 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, and 172 supervisors for doctoral candidates.Among all the academic staff, one has received the first “China Young Scientist Award”, one has been nominated the prize of the “China Young Scientist Award”, 2 have won the first “Famous Teacher Award” for universities and colleges nationwide, one has received the “National Model Teacher Award”, 9 have obtained the “China Youth Award for Excellence in Science and Technology”, one has received the title of “National Excellent Worker for Scientific and Technological Advancement”, 10 have possessed state-level titles as the “Outstanding Young and Middle Aged Experts”, 7 have been listed among the first and second level candidates for the “Millions of Talents Projects”, 9 have been listed among the “New Century Outstanding Talent Training Program”, 9 have obtained awards from the China Outstanding Youth Science Fund, 3 have been listed among candidates for the Eighth China Youth

Award for Excellence in Science and Technology.Additionally, 200 academics have received various state or ministerial-level honorary academic titles.CUMT, with a history of nearly 100 years, has always focused on

student-centered education, and the quality of student education has continued to improve.Since its inception, CUMT has produced more than 100,000 graduates, among which 10 are top-level academicians in the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Engineering, and 20 are ministers and provincial governors.Among CUMT’s

graduates are a large number of successful entrepreneurs, technicians and engineers who have excelled in their fields.Since China’s reform and opening up policy was adopted in 1978, CUMT has received 13 state-level awards for excellence in teaching quality, 9 state-level prizes for excellence in textbook publication, 52 ministerial and provincial-level awards for excellence in teaching achievements, 45 ministerial and provincial-level awards for excellence in textbooks or monographs.Three courses have won state-level awards for excellence, and seven have won provincial-level

awards.Seven papers have received prizes in the State Competition of One Hundred Excellent Doctoral Graduation Papers.Two post-doctoral fellows have won the title of “China Ten Excellent Post-doctoral Fellows” in 202_ and 202_ respectively.In the first State Competition of MBA Student Article Solicitation, CUMT students won the exclusive first prize.In university students’ academic and science competitions, CUMT students have won a series of titles, including the grand prize in the “Challenge Cup” University Student Extracurricular Scientific Achievements

Competition, the Zhou Peiyuan First Place Prize for the State Mechanics Competition, and honorable mentions in the First State Computer Science Competition and the State University Student Robot TV Competition.CUMT students have also won first prizes in both Chinese and international mathematical modeling competitions.At present, the total student population on the main campus in Xuzhou exceeds 40,000 people, of which over 25,000 are undergraduate students, 5,000 are candidates for master and doctoral degrees.There are also over 170 international students.Since its inception, CUMT has formed an excellent school spirit summarized in the motto “Diligence, Earnestness, Enterprise and Dedication,” and has also cultivated a glorious tradition emphasizing physical education.CUMT has developed a further “campus spirit” of studiousness, adherence to facts and creativity, hard work and efforts to improve.CUMT has produced numerous nationally competitive athletes.Since 1978, CUMT has broken over 80 records in many of China’s national collegiate games and won the “President Cup” three times, which is the greatest honor in

national collegiate competition.CUMT was also elected as the “Excellent University in Completing University Physical Education Requirements” many times over.CUMT is designated as a “Base of National Collegiate Track and Field Training” by the National Physical Education and Sports Committee, and has won many honorable titles such as “National Advanced Collective in Mass Physical Education”, “Excellent School in the National Physical Education and Sports Appraisal” and “National Advanced School in Extracurricular Training among Higher Learning Institutions”.CUMT has been committed to quality scientific research, and has achieved

abundant of high-level results, among which 31 have received three state-level awards and 431 have won provincial-level awards.The various indexes reflecting the overall academic level of CUMT are among the first rank in the entire country.Since the ninth “Five-Year Plan” period(1996-202_), CUMT has undertaken 7,115 research projects, of which 382 are national projects.In recent years, CUMT has strengthened international exchanges and

cooperation with partners throughout the world.Now it has established academic links with nearly 50 universities and research institutions, such as, the University of Nottingham of UK, the University of Duisburg-Essen of Germany, the Swinburne University of Technology of Australia, the Kentucky University of the United States and the Hanoi University of Mining and Geology of Vietnam, etc.Concurrently, the University has sponsored a number of international symposiums, resulting in vigorous academic exchanges with the outside world.CUMT features good facilities for teaching and research.The main library has holdings of over 1,950,000 volumes.The University has 2 national key laboratories, 1 national engineering research center, 1 state-level university science and technology park, 2 state-level and 9 ministerial-level key laboratories as well as 5

ministerial-level engineering research centers.In addition, it has a testing and analysis center, a rock mechanics and strata control center, a center for coal water mixture manufacturing and a long-wall coal caving center.Furthermore, CUMT has complete facilities for culture, sports and living.CUMT covers an area of 297 hectares with a floor space of 1,130,000 square meters(The Wenchang campus covers an area of 107 hectares with a floor space of 530,000 square meters.The newly-built Nanhu campus covers an area of 190 hectares with a floor space of 600,000 square meters.).Now, a modern university campus has emerged, with characteristics of efficient layout, complete infrastructure, stylish architecture, a state-of-the-art information network, picturesque settings and pleasant environs.For the new century, CUMT has set down an overall development strategy.In the next ten years, the university will give priority to science and engineering, while also endeavoring to ensure harmonious development with other disciplines such as liberal arts, management, law and economics.The university will also emphasize discipline development, student education, scientific research, and social service as well as school management.This will ensure that CUMT takes the lead in these aspects, so that the university will become a world leader in the field of mining engineering, with a clear advantage in and unique focus on energy sciences and technology.The university recognizes the need to make strides in a number of

interdisciplinary areas as well.Therefore, the mission of the University is to develop into a high-level multidisciplinary institution of both national and international standing, with a strong commitment to research.