第一篇：英国文化 名词解释

1.The Kiwi

It is the name of one of the native birds in New Zealand.It is flightless.In colloquial English the Kiwi,capitalized,is also used to refer to a New Zealander.2.The Open Polytechnic in New Zealand

It is the largest educational institution in New Zealand.Most of its students study part-time.It offers more than 700 courses in a wide range of subjects.Multimedia learning is one of its characteristics.3.The Bill of Rights in the USA

It consists of the first 10 amendments which were added to the Constitution in 1791.It guarantees freedom and inpidual rights such as freedom of speech,the right to assemble in public places,the right to own weapons and so on.4.“The Wizard of Menlo Park”

It refers to Thomas Alva Edison.He was the most famous of all American inventors.Among his many important inventions are electric lamp,phonograph,motion pictures and so on.As he was so clever and talented and his workplace were located in Menlo Park,New Jersey,he earned the title.5.Martin Luther King Jr.A black Baptist minister,he was the leader of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference during the civil rights movement of the 1960s.In 1963,King delivered his famous “I Have a Dream”speech.As a civil rights leader,King worked not only to end racial discrimination and poverty,but also to raise the self image of the black.Due to his strong belief in non-violent peaceful protest,King was awarded the Nobel Peace-Prize in 1964.He was assassinated in the city of Memphis in April 1968.6.The Strategy of Preemption in the USA

President Bush put forward the strategy of preemption.By preemption,when it determined that a country which is repressive and hostile to the US has acquired or produced weapons of mass destruction or has the potential to have such weapons,the US should use force to remove this threat to US security and should not wait till the danger becomes imminent or until the US is attacked.This has come to be known as the Bush doctrine.7.Early Jazz Music

It appeared in the southern New Orleans at the end of the 19 century.It was a blend of folk music,work chants,spirituals,marches,and European classical music.Instruments are used as a trumpet,a trombone,and percussion instruments like the drum,banjo,and guitars.Jazz developed into the 1920’s with two different styles,namely,the Chicago style jazz and the New York style.8.The Canadian Identity

It refers to something which is distinctively Canadian,different from other countries,and the very reason for making Canada so special.For example,two official languages of English and French can be considered as part of the Canadian identity.9.The Canadian Mosaic

Canada is a nation of immigrants.When it is described as a mosaic,it means that the immigrant groups do not have to throw off their old customs,languages and traditions.This resembles a mosaic of different cultures which overlap but do not overwhelm each other.10.The Inuit

The Inuit used to be called the Eskimo who lives in far north of the arctic climate by hunting.Today,some of these people still live this way;while others make a living through selling carvings and handicrafts.th

第二篇：英国文学史-名词解释（模版）

名词解释

Heroic Couplet:a couplet consisting of two rhymed lines of iambic pentameter, and written in an elevated style.1．Renaissance:a revival or rebirth of the artistic and scientific revival which originated in Italy in the 14th century and gradually spread all over Europe.It has two features: a thirsting curiosity for the classical literature and keen interest in activities of humanity.2．Sonnet:14-line lyric poem, usually written in rhymed iambic pentameter.3．Blank verse:poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter.4．Neoclassicism:the Enlightenment brought about a revival of interest in Greek and Roman works.This tendency is known as Neoclassicism.5．Sentimentalism:it was one of the important trends in English literature of the later decades of the 18th century.It concentrated on the free expression of thoughts and emotions, and presented a new view of human nature which prized feeling over thinking, passion over reason.6．Romanticism:imagination, emotion and freedom are certainly the focal points of romanticism.The particular characteristics of the literature of romanticism include: subjectivity and an emphasis on inpidualism;freedom from rules;solitary life rather then life in society;the beliefs that imagination is superior to reason;and love of and worship of nature.7．Lake Poets:the English poets who lived in and drew inspiration from the Lake District at the beginning of the 19th century.8．Byronic Heroes:a variant of the Romantic heroes as a type of character(enthusiasm, persistence, pursuing freedom), named after the English Romantic Poet Gordon Byron.9．Realism:seeks to portray familiar characters, situations, and settings in a realistic manner.This is done primarily by using an objective narrative point of view and through the buildup of accurate detail.10．Aestheticism:an art movement supporting the emphasis of aesthetic values more than socio-political themes for literature, fine art, music and other arts.11．Stream-of-Consciousness:it is a literary technique that presents the thoughts and feelings of a character as they occur without any clarification by the author.It is a narrative mode.12．Dramatic Monologue:a kind of narrative poem in which one character speaks to one or more listeners whose replies are not given in the poem.13．Iambic Pentameter:a poetic line consisting of five verse feet, with each foot an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable, that is, with each foot an iamb.14．Epic:a long narrative poem telling about the deeds of a great hero and reflecting the values of the society from which it originated.15．Elegy:a poem of mourning, usually over the death of an inpidual;may also be a lament over the passing of life and beauty or a meditation of the nature of death;a type of lyric poem.16．Canto:a section of a long poem.The cantos can be a great poem

17．Ode:a complex and often lengthy lyric poem, written in a dignified formal style on some lofty or serious subjects.Odes are written for a special occasion, to honor a person or a season or to commemorate an event.Spenserian Stanza: a nine-line stanza made up of 8 lines of iambic pentameter ending with an Alexandrine.Its thyme scheme is ababbcbcc.This stanza was common to travel literature.18．Metrical Pattern: a lyric poem of five 14-lined stanzas containing four tercets and a closing couplet.The rhyme scheme is aba bcb cdc ded ee.文学史

中古时期

1.《贝奥武甫》: the natural epic of the English people;Denmark story, alliteration, metaphor, understatements

2.《高文爵士和绿衣骑士》

3.杰弗里 乔叟）：the Father of English Poetry;The Canterbury Tales《埃特伯雷故事集》（24stories)

文艺复兴时期

1.:-the communication between more and the traveler which just came back from Utopia.2.the first English Essayist;Essays《随笔集》-Of Studies, Of Truth(philosophical and literary works)

3.first to introduce the sonnet into English literature.4.:Poet's poet;The Fairy Queen《仙后》(to Queen Elizabeth I)

5.:

Sonnet 18(Shall I compare thee to a summer's day)

17世纪英国文学

1.:the leading poet of Metaphysical school of poetry;A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning《分离：莫忧伤》

2.Paradise Lost《失乐园》（a revolt against God's authority), Paradise Regained《复乐园》（how Christ overcame Santa)——stories were taken from Bible

3.the son of Renaissance;Pilgrim's Progress《天路历程》(imagination, shadowing, realistic religious allegory)

18世纪英国文学

Novel：

1.the age of reason, classicism, sentimentalism and romanticism(novels, prose, dramas, poetry)

2.:representative of English realistic novel;(the development of a young man from a naive and artless youth to a clever and hardened man)

3.(fictional, satirical-human nature, the European Government, the differences between religions, whole English state system)

4.:the Father of English novel;The History of Tome Jones, a Foundling《汤姆 琼斯》，satiric

Poetry：

5.:Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard《墓园挽歌》

6.:perfected in heroic couplet;An Essay on Criticism《论批评》

7.:pre-romantic;Songs of Innonce《天真之歌》，Songs of Experience《经验之歌》-London, The Tiger

8.:A Red Red Rose《一朵红红的玫瑰》

Drama:

9.:Master of Comedy of manners;The School for Scandal《造谣学校》

浪漫主义时期1798-1832

1.《序曲》；I Wondered Lonely as a Cloud《我似流云天自游》；The Solitary Reaper《孤寂的割麦女》；features: poet of nature and human heart

2.the first critic of the Romantic school;The Rime of the Ancient Mariner《古舟子咏》

3.:vigorous, strong and beautiful;Childe Harold's Pilgrimage《恰尔德 哈罗尔德游记》(spenserian stanza, fights for liberty);Don Juan《唐 璜》(a broad critical picture of European life);When We Two Parted《昔日依依别》；She Walks in Beauty《她走在美的光影中》；The Isles of Greece《哀希腊》

4.Ode to the West Wind《西风颂》-赞颂西风，希望与其紧密相连;Prometheus Unbound《解放了的普罗米修斯》(the victory for man's struggle against tyranny and oppression)

5.sensuous, colorful and rich in imagery;Ode to a Nightingale《夜莺颂》；Ode on a Grecian Urn《希腊古瓮颂》

6.:Father of Historical Novel;combine historical fact and romantic imagination

7.wit, dry humour, subtle irony,realistic;Pride and Prejudice《傲慢与偏见》(Elizabeth and Darcy)；Sense and Sensibility《理智与情感》；Emma《爱玛》

8.《穷亲戚》;Dream-children《童年梦幻》;A Reverie《幻想曲》

维多利亚时期

1.summit： realistic novel

2.critical realist writer;humour, wit, happy endings;A Tale of Two Cities《双城记》(London & Paris, where there is oppression, there is revolution);David Copperfield《大卫 科波菲尔》；Oliver Twist《雾都孤儿》；Hard Time《艰难时世》；Great Expectations《远大前程》； Dombey and Son《董贝父子》；Pickwick Papers《匹克威克外传》

3.: Vanity Fair《名利场》(to satirize the social more, decadence and corruption of his time;to criticize the values measured by wealth)

4.:novelist, her novels are celebrated for their realism and psychological insights;Adam Bede《亚当 比德》(social inequality)；The Mill on the Floss《弗洛斯河上的磨坊》；Silas Marner《织工马南》

5.: succeeded Wordsworth as Poet Laureate in 1850;Break, Break, Break《拍吧，拍吧，拍吧》；Crossing the Bar《过沙洲》

6.: dramatic monologues;My Last Duchess《我已故的公爵夫人》 7.：简·爱是一个心地纯洁、善于思考的女性，她生活在社会底层，受尽磨难。但她有倔强的性格和勇于追求平等幸福的精神。小说以浓郁抒情的笔法和深刻细腻的心理描写，引人入胜地展示了男女主人公曲折起伏的爱情经历，歌颂了摆脱一切旧习俗和偏见。扎根于相互理解、相互尊重的基础之上的深挚爱情，具有强烈的震撼心灵的艺术力量。其最为成功之处在于塑造了一个敢于反抗，敢于争取自由和平等地位的妇女形象。《呼啸山庄》：描写吉卜赛弃儿希斯克利夫被山庄老主人收养后，因受辱和恋爱不遂，外出致富，回来后对与其女友凯瑟琳结婚的地主林顿及其子女进行报复的故事。

: Agnes Gray《安格尼斯 格雷》

20世纪英国文学

1.: feature:past and modern, critical, realism, determinism;Tess of The D'urbervillles《德伯家的苔丝》；Jude the Obscure《无名的裘德》

2.: From the Four Winds《四季的风》；The Man of Property《有产业的人》；The Silver Box《银盒》

3.《华伦夫人的职业》；Pygmalion《皮革马利翁》(transform a cockney-speaking flower girl into a woman as poised and well-spoken as a duchess);The Apple Cart《苹果车》

4.: aestheticism;The Happy Prince and Other Tales《快乐王子》；The Picture of Dorian Gray《道林 格雷的画像》

5.《儿子和情人》； The White Peacock《白孔雀》

6.Virginia Woolf: stream-of-consciousness;feminist;To the Lighthouse《到灯塔去》；Mrs Dalloway《达洛维夫人》

7.《尤利西斯》(stream of consciousness, a modern prose epic);Dubliners《都柏林人》

第三篇：英国文学史-名词解释

名词解释

1．Renaissance:a revival or rebirth of the artistic and scientific revival which originated in Italy in the 14th century and gradually spread all over Europe.It has two features: a thirsting curiosity for the classical literature and keen interest in activities of humanity.2．Neoclassicism:the Enlightenment brought about a revival of interest in Greek and Roman works.This tendency is known as Neoclassicism.3．Romanticism:imagination, emotion and freedom are certainly the focal points of romanticism.The particular characteristics of the literature of romanticism include: subjectivity and an emphasis on inpidualism;freedom from rules;solitary life rather then life in society;the beliefs that imagination is superior to reason;and love of and worship of nature.4．Byronic Heroes:a variant of the Romantic heroes as a type of character(enthusiasm, persistence, pursuing freedom), named after the English Romantic Poet Gordon Byron.5．Epic:a long narrative poem telling about the deeds of a great hero and reflecting the values of the society from which it originated.6．Geoffrey Chaucer: founder of English poetry;The Canterbury Tales(main contents;124 stories planned, only 24 finished;written in Middle English;significance;form: heroic couplet)

7．The Lake Poetsall lived in the Lake District of England at the turn of the nineteenth century.As a group, they followed no single “school” of thought or literary practice then known, although their works were uniformly disparaged by the Edinburgh Review.They are considered part of the Romantic Movement.8．Metaphysical poetry is commonly used to name the work of the 17th century writers who wrote under the influence of John Donne.9． Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance.It emphasizes the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life.Humanists voiced their beliefs that man was the center of the universe and man did not only have the right to enjoy the beauty of the present life，but had the ability to perfect himself and to perform wonders.、

第四篇：英国-名词解释汇总

Chapter One Land and People

1.British Isles

2.Great Britain

3.Lake District

4.Common law

5.The Church of England

6.the British Commonwealth

Chapter Three History

1.Roman Conquest

2.Alfred the Great

3.William the Conqueror

4.Magna Carta

5.Great Council

6.The Hundred Years’ War

7.Black Death

8.The Wars of the Roses

9.The Gunpowder Plot

10.Renaissance

11.Christianity

12.Islam

13.Puritanism

14.The Bill of Rights

15.The Glorious Revolution

16.The Germanic tribes

17.The Enclosure Movement

18.The Industrial Revolution

19.The Reformation

Chapter Four Government and Politics

1.The British monarchy

2.The House of Lords

3.The House of Commons

Chapter Seven Education

1.Public School

2.Open University

3.Oxbridge

第五篇：文化概论名词解释

第四节中国古代文化典籍概览、中国古代典籍分为经、史、子、集四大部类，还有类书和丛书。、经书是以孔子为代表的儒家书籍，包括儒家经典和历代对儒家经典的注疏。最早的经书包括《诗经》、《书经》、《礼经》、《乐经》、《易经》和《春秋》六种。汉代失《乐经》，加《孝经》和《论语》，合称为七经；唐代扩大为九经（即把礼经分为周礼、仪礼和礼记）和十二经（即把解释《春秋》的三传《左传》、《公羊传》和《谷梁传》加为经书），后又增加《尔雅》，宋代增加《孟子》合为十三经。、诗经是我国最早的一部诗歌总集，分风、雅、颂三大类；书经是我国早的一部历史文献汇编，包括虞夏商周的文诰号令；易经是占卜用书；《周礼》是一部谈论政治制度的书；《仪礼》记录了周代贵族的礼制，反映了当时的宗教仪式和风俗习惯；春秋三传是对我国第一部编制史《春秋》所作的阐释；《尔雅》是一部古代训诂资料汇编。、论语、大学、中庸、孟子合称为四书。、正史，是指纪传体史书。最早的是《史记》，以人物为本位，分为本纪、表、书、世家、列传五体。东汉班固作《汉书》，将正史格局定为纪、表、志、传四体。、编年体通史的代表作是《资治通鉴》；记载历代典章制度的史书叫“政书”；断代的典章制度史称为“会要”。、诸子是指先秦到汉初各学派的著作。包括儒、道、墨、阴阳、法、名、杂、法、书等。、道家的主要经典是《老子》、《庄子》。、法家的代表作：《商君书》的基本思想是主张法治、实行农战，加强集权，以求富强。《慎子》、《韩非子》。

10、兵家著作有《孙子》、《孙膑兵法》和《吴子》。

11、《管子》包含了道、名、法等家的思想。《吕氏春秋》以儒、道思想为主。

12、汉魏六朝诸子的代表作有《新语》、《淮南子》《世说新语》《颜氏家训》《盐铁论》

（询以治乱的一场争论》《法言》《论衡》《申鉴》《潜夫论》，抱朴子》等。

13、集部是诗文词等书的总称。《四库全书》分为楚辞、别集、总集、诗文评、词曲；其中别集是指收录个人诗文的集子；总集是指汇录多人作品的集子。

14、《楚辞》是西汉齐向将战国时代楚国屈原、宋玉等人在民间歌谣基础上创造而成的诗歌作品以及模仿它们的作品汇编成的书。

15、我国现存最早的诗文集是梁萧统的《文选》，收录了先秦至梁的各体诗文。

16、类书是中国古代典籍中一种百科全书式的资料汇编工具书，它将群书中的各种资料以类相从，供检索之用。最早的类书是三国魏文帝编的《皇览》；明代以前，著名的类书有唐代的《艺文类聚》、宋代的《太平御览》《太平广记》和《册府元龟》；明代类书规模最大的是《永乐大典》；清代规模最大的是《古今图书集成》，是我国现存类书中规模最大、用处最广，体例最完善的一种。

17、丛书是将数人之书合为一编而别提一总名，以利学者系统览阅。清代乾隆年间编成的《四库全书》是丛书中的代表作。、中国古代丛书林林总总，最值得一提的是清代乾隆年间编纂成的大型从书（B）A《古今图书集成》 B《四库全书》 C《二十四史》、诗经分为（ACE）三大类。A 风 B乐 C雅 D礼 E颂、汉魏六朝诸子的代表作有（ACDF）A 《新语》 B《文馆词林》 C《法言》 D《论衡》E《玉台新咏》 F《淮南子》、2001年江苏自考卷：至今世界上页数最多的丛书是（D）A永乐大典 B《古今图书集成》

C 《康熙字典》 D《四库全书》（这道题出得无根无据，书上没有，可见偏度之大。）5、2001年江苏自考卷：《周礼》又名周官，是一部（D）A记录周代贵族礼制的书 B我国最早的诗歌总集 C占卜书 D谈论政治制度的书、2001年江苏卷：汉代六经中的《乐经》不存在，增加了（B）合为七经。A 论语孟子 B孝经论语 C孟子老子 D老子庄子、2002年江苏卷：诗经是我国最早的一部（诗歌总集）。、（孙子）是我国现存最早的兵书。、战国时法学家商鞅及其后学著作的合编是〈商君书〉。

第七章中国古代科学技术

这一章是重点，大小题目均可以出，而且出题点较多，要细看备考要点。

第一节中国古代科学的伟大成就、世界公认最早的太阳黑子记录，是西汉成帝河平元年的记载。最早记载哈雷慧星的是公元前613 年，记于《春秋》（有星孛入于北斗）。、对现代天文学贡献最大的，要数新星和超新星的记录。最早记录新星是公元前134 年。、中国对日月食的记载，也是世界上最早、最丰富的。、中国早在五六千年以前，就已经创制了世界上最早的测天仪器，即浑仪。宋代天文学家苏颂设计的水运仪象台，沈括改综合型为分工型，元代郭守敬于1276年制成的简化的浑仪-简仪。、早在五六千年前，中国的先民就开始把天体黄道、赤道附近的恒性分为28个星区，每个星区各取一星为主，称为二十八宿。、战国天文学家石申著《天文》8 卷记录了121 颗恒星的赤道座标位置，这是世界上最古老的星表。

名词解释

1、广义文化：文化是人类在长期的历史发展中共同创造并赖以生存的物质与精神存在的总和。广义文化是与人类及人类的创造活动相联系的，是以人为中心的概念；广义文化是～个历史概念，它涵盖人类历史的全过程，是～个传承发展的综合概念；广义文化的外延涵盖物质创造和精神创造的全部。

2、狭义文化：狭义文化又称人文文化，是某一社会集体（民族或阶层）在长期历史发展中经传承积累而自然凝聚的共有的人文精神及其物质体现总体体系。狭义文化不但以人为中心，而且以人的精神活动为中心，即使观察物化世界，也是以其中的人文精神为内核的；狭义文化关注的不是个别人的精神活动，而是经历史传承累积凝聚的共有的、成体系的人文精神；狭义文化关注的不仅是全人类的普遍共性，而且更注重不同民族、阶层、集团人文精神的特点。

3、文化产品：广义的文化产品指人类创造的一切提供给社会的可见成品，既包括物质产品，也包括精神产品。狭义的文化产品专指精神产品，它是写成的典籍或成为口头流传的语言形式的纯粹的思想观念的产物。

4、文化内涵：我们把一些不属于狭义文化的事物中所具有的人文特性，称为事物的文化内涵。

5、文化现象：指人类文化发展过程中呈现出的某种外部状态和联系。

6、文化事象：当一种现象以同样的形式反复出现时，其中就含有规律性，成为某一历史时期、某一国家（民族或地域）文化发展中带有典型和标志作用的事情，这些现象称为文化事象。文化事象往往是思想观念及其物化形式的综合，它不但具有外在的特色，而且含有观念的特色。文化事象是人们对现象的感受上升到理性概括的认识产物。

7、文化观念：一个时期某一阶层或某一行业的人群对文化问题所持的态度和看法，或在某一文化事象里所表现的意识形态，诸如价值观、审美观等等，称作文化观念。

8、文化思潮：某种文化观念及与之相关的文化事象，在某一特定时期，在一定的背景下，对社会产生广泛影响，为多数人所赞同和奉行，形成一种潮流，称作文化思潮。

9、文化政策：指一定时代、～定的社会条件下，行政机构对文化领域的问题所颁布的相关规定和对策原则。

10、民族文化：不同的民族有自己不同于其他民族的文化，文化的差异与特色是划分民族的标志之一。由于历史发展条件和文化本身的结构、功能等方面的特点，不同民族的文化在发展中，在这一或那一历史时期，相对而言，有比较昌盛、发达、普及的；也有昌盛、发达、普及的程度稍差一些的。但是每一个民族的文化都不会因此而丧失其鲜明的民族特色。地域特色。由于每种民族文化都是独特的，所以作为一种价值而言，它们均处于平等的地位。

11、国别文化：国别文化是以国家为划分文化的社会依据，多民族国家的文化即在统一的国家内民族共同体的文化。国别文化以某一国家特有的历史与国情为基础。中国文化又称中华文化、华夏文化、炎黄文化，它属于国别文化。

12、中国传统文化：指的是以中华文化为源头、中国境内各民族共同创造的、长期历史发展所积淀的文化。

13、文化传统：每一个民族、每一个国家的文化，既因时因地而异，又有一定的稳固性和延续性，文化传统是贯穿于民族和国家各个历史阶段的各类文化的核心精神。

14、天下观念：分裂与统一是中国历史上的两大现象，统一总是占主导倾向的追求。大体从商朝开始，王朝就己按着距离的远近，对天下人采取不同的政治策略；西周时，“天下”的观念已十分明晰。以后历朝历代的荒地，无不以边远的四裔民族的“来朝”为荣。“天下”观念的一个重要作用就是最求统一，追求统一始终是政治观念中的基调，也是历史的基本倾向。天下一家的大一统意识，是威力持久的中国理念，对中华民族的不断发展壮大，曾起过重要作用。

15、新石器时代：距今约1 万年左右，人类进入新石器时代。新石器时代最重要的特征：原始农业的出现、陶器的制造、磨光石器的广泛使用以及村落出现、氏族制度的形成等。

16、三是五帝“：”三皇五帝“是中国古代的传说时代。”三皇“人物极不确定，但他们的共同处都是文化发明者。”五帝“的人物则有相当的确定性。据《史记。五帝本纪》记载，五帝的话系是黄帝颛顼、高辛、尧、舜。通过考古发掘和人类文化学研究证明，五帝传说并不完全是后人的向壁虚构，它映现着某种历史真实。

17、百家争鸣：1.百家争鸣横贯春秋战国，但也有前后的变化。春秋时期的思想家更像学者、教师，他们或是宁静地思考，或是广招门徒。而战国时期的思想家更像辩士，他们的思想基础～般在春秋时业经前辈创立，他们的作为是在学派间的争论中，捍卫并发展本学派的主张。所以前期的著作多是对老师或创始人思想的语录，后期则多是争辩的论说。2.诸子百家与时代的互动和相互选择。各学派都在不断调整和深化自己的理论，努力适应着社会的要求。学派与学派之间也不断地在相互争鸣中相互吸收、相互影响。

18、名家：又称刑名家，创始人是春秋时代郑国的邓析，战国时期的代表人物有公孙龙、惠施，后期的墨家学派及庄子的某些理论，与这个学派也有密切关系。邓析当年专门帮人诉讼，“以非为是，以是为非”，狡辩术取胜，到公孙龙、惠施则有所谓“离坚白”、“合同异”之争，涉及的是事物的概念与实际（即“名”与“实”）的关系问题，有很强烈的思辩色彩。这一派的学说也是随着战国的结束而消失了，随着近代西方哲学的输入，人们才重新认识到它的价值。

19、西域：狭义的西域指新疆地区，天山南北当时分布着大小36个国家，文明水准相当高。广义的西域还包括中亚、印度、伊朗、阿富汗、巴基斯坦一部分。

20、察举制：是一种由下向上推选官员人才的制度。有许多科目，其中孝廉、茂才、贤良方正文学三科最显著。

21、永嘉之乱：八王之乱时，混战中的诸王招引匈奴乌桓、鲜卑贵族助战，大河南北从此成为匈奴鲜卑人的世界。晋永嘉二年（308 年），匈奴贵族刘渊在山西平阳称帝，国号汉。永嘉五年（311 年），刘渊的军队攻陷洛阳，俘虏晋朝皇帝，史称“永嘉之乱”。

22、三省六部制：隋朝在中央实行三省六部制。三省即中书省（隋称内史省）、门下省、尚书省。中书省负责诏书起草，是决策机构；门下省职掌封驳，为审议机构；尚书省负责政策执行，属行政机构；尚书省下设六部，即吏部、户部（隋称民部）、礼部、兵部、刑部、工部，各部长官称尚书。三省长官共议国政，同执宰相之职。并非必要，但在黄帝心目中不仅必要，而且十分重要。

23、一条鞭法：明朝万历年间曾有过张居正主持的旨在增加国库收入、减轻民众负担的税制改革，即“一条鞭法”。那是中唐两税法的继续，内容是把田赋。力役及其他名目繁多的杂税合成～条；统一按田亩数量征收，同时还简化了征收手续。

24、摊丁入亩：一条鞭法在清朝进而变为“摊丁入亩”-“丁”指丁银，即人头税，摊丁入亩以康熙五十年的人丁银额为准，将丁银摊到人家所占的地亩中去征收赋税，实际是取消了人头税。因为康熙五十年以后出生的人口不纳税，～定程度上也刺激了人口的增长。赋税制改革对经济的发展是有好处的，明清特别是清朝中期以后的社会发展，是受惠于康熙雍正年间的改制的。但不论是一条鞭法还是摊丁入亩，都不过是两税法的延续，其立意不过是在国家税源日趋枯竭的情况下增加朝廷收入，其政治观念的内涵仍未摆脱重农主义范畴

25、乾嘉学派：明朝的灭亡，告诉人们不能只是空谈性理，还应该博学以致用，所以考据之学渐渐兴旺起来，学者们对传统的经史文献进行大量的考订、校勘、辑佚、辨伪和注解工作，整理了一大批文献，这样的工作在乾隆、嘉庆年间特别兴盛，所以称之为乾嘉学派。