第一篇：西藏英文导游词

in tantric buddhist iconography, the battle axe is held by ferocious deilies to symbolize severance of this worldly attachment.在佛教金铸文法本图解中，战斗斧是由凶残的神灵拿来象征阻隔世俗的依恋的。

lesson sixteen tibetan art 第十六课 西藏艺术

the land of snow is known as the“ocean of songs and dances”and indeed singing and dancing are greatly enjoyed by tibetans.这块被雪覆盖的土地作为歌舞的海洋被人们所知晓。却是这样，唱歌和跳舞是西藏人民非常喜欢的。during holidays and festivals,everyone joins in dancing,gaily singing hand in hand.在节假日里，每个人都参加到舞蹈中，手牵着手愉快的唱着歌。

religious dance is called cham in tibetan.宗教舞蹈在西藏被叫做羌姆（跳神）。it was initiated by padmasambhave in the samye monastery in the eighth century.它是在公元八世纪由padmasambhave 在samye 修道院发起的。according to an account in the chapter women drum.这是一个充满活力的舞蹈，表演者围成一个圈步伐灵动，男人敲锣，女人打鼓。at the height of the performance,the men perform pirouettes on one leg while the women beat their drums high above their heads as they twirl.在表演的高潮，男人单脚站立旋转，女人在旋转的同时把鼓举在头顶击打。

the gor-shae is a round dance popular in the three major regions and the tibet:lhasa,lhoka and shigatse.gor-shae是圆舞的一种在三个的三个主要地区流行：拉萨，山南，日喀则。this kind of round dance is performed by both men and women who form two concentric circles around a bonfire,and holding hands,shoulders touching,sing in alternate choruses of men and women.这种圆舞有男的女的围绕着一炉篝火形成两个同心圆，手牵着手，肩并着肩交替合唱。the dance may continue throughout the night until daybreak.舞蹈可能贯穿整个晚上直到黎明。

ballad is popular in tibet to transmit the history of nation,myths of buddhism and folk tales down the generations by describing them with simple and short songs or poems.民谣用于传达西藏民族历史很是流行，佛教传说和民间故事通过描写他们的简短歌曲和诗传递给下一代。

art and literature are deeply rooted in the history of tibet,and in the splendid isolation of the tibetan plateau folk tales,songs,and dances and opera have developed their own unique form and local flavour.艺术和文化深深地根植于西藏的历史，孤立的青藏高原的民间故事，歌曲，舞蹈和戏曲通过他们自己独特的方式和风格发展的非常辉煌。篇二：

14、嘉雍群培——西藏死亡艺术

西藏死亡藝術

嘉雍群培

中央民族大學音樂學院教授

內容摘要：佛教從7世紀傳入西藏以來，與本土文化相結合，形成了獨具特色的藏傳佛教。它影響著藏族人生活的方方面面，成為藏族文化的重要組成部分和藏族人的重要信仰。這可以從藏族人的死亡儀式中看出，同時，藏傳佛教通過各種藝術形式反映其信條。在死亡儀式中運用的音樂及其深奧，展示出它與佛教教義的和諧與完美一致。

關鍵詞：藏傳佛教 生死輪回 因果報應 中陰救度 現實

人類的恐懼莫過於死亡，而藏族人對死亡的認識與眾不同，他們所舉行的死亡儀式，仿佛是在舉行一種特殊的藝術休習，並認為死亡不是生命的終點，要進入中陰1，是新生的開始，是生命中最尊貴和最光榮的時刻。人們從小就開始接受死亡的教育和修行，在死亡儀式的整個過程中，藝術創作與實踐與佛教思想完美結合，《西藏度亡經》2將其稱為“死亡的藝術”。

藏傳佛教對死亡的修習

藏傳佛教的教育是從因果報應3，生死輪回4，諸行無常，更漏皆苦開始的，因此，藏族人對來世和死亡的重視往往超過了對誕生和現實的重視，追求生命的解脫為一生最高的理想。早期在西藏沒更人去慶祝生日，而對死亡的重視和教育是從生開始，孩子在嬰兒時期，就由母親背著朝佛轉經，並教唱六字真言歌“俺嘛呢叭咪哄”。藏傳佛教認為，六字真言是一切佛教教義的根本和精髓，能破除六種煩惱，修六種般若行，獲得六種1 2 中阴：人从死到生之间的时间，为七七四十九天。莲华生著 徐进夫译：《西藏度亡经》宗教文化出版社 1995年出版，第9页。

藏传佛教教义认为万事万物都在因果轮回之中，不能改变。4 藏传佛教认为，由于“我执”，人们会有消极的情绪，那是因为他们对真相的无知，从而陷入生死轮回。佛身，生出六種智慧。

在藏區真言調很豐富，更長調也更短調，不同的地方或不同的供養唱不同的曲調。藏傳佛教的“空”、“苦”思想，成為真言曲調的基本風格，因此，真言調的旋律以五聲小調式為主，其中羽調式用的最多，色彩暗淡。

人生多難，為了避免以外的死亡和劫難，父母又要教你頌唱金剛上師咒：

“俺阿洪班雜咕嚕叭嘛悉地哄”

據說這十二個字母帶著佛陀說法十二部的整個加持，十二部教法能使人解脫“十二因緣”，脫離六道輪回，當你高唱它時，所聞者皆獲巨大利益和功德。之外，還要教你皈依經和皈依曲，即皈依上師、皈依佛、皈依法和皈依僧。

這些誦唱的咒語歌，旋律平穩、柔和、情切，仿佛聆聽上師的告誡，瞻仰大悲的尊容，滋生心性的智慧。

臨終中陰中的心性顯露

在藏區，對臨終的人要舉行一系列煩瑣的宗教活動，首先要祈請四方神靈給予加持、護佑，所以在一些宗教活動和祭祀的地方，經常聽到祈請上師的長調，用優美的詞藻，悅耳的歌生去感化和達通神靈，祈求他們給危難者力量和勇氣，擺脫病魔的纏繞，不受邪魔的拖曳。暗淡、柔和的旋律中透露出一絲迷茫、彷徨。

祈禱後進入禪定狀態，為了臨終者不因死亡而恐懼，上師開始輕輕的，更節奏的敲打臨終者，設法使意念遷移，從鎖骨敲到頭頂，用情切、柔和、慈祥的語調念唱。上師繼續敲打，聲音逐漸放慢，放弱，不斷重複，直到臨終者拋開生命進入實相之境。最終得到上師的指導，放下恐懼的心，用平靜、自然、喜悅的心情迎接死亡的到來，把死當成迎接新生必須經過的短暫的幻影，是很重要的，是進入涅磐或往生善趣的重要環節。

法性中陰的明光境界

由於業力的牽引，大多數人不能頓入根本明光，就要進入法性中陰的-123124 亡者為餓鬼作最後的施捨，宣揚佛教施捨的精神，鼓勵人們用天葬作最後的施捨，以表達慈悲、慧智的佛心。

樂舞伴奏樂器更銅欽（大號），鈸鈸、嘉令（藏式大嗩呐）風鈴（人股骨號，也稱鬼叫號）、海螺、鈴鋒、手鼓等樂器，演出氣勢恢弘、莊嚴、色彩濃厚，具更很強的震懾作用。

人們懼怕死亡，回避死亡，但沒更一個人可以逃脫死亡，藏傳佛教的教義正是圍繞死亡的認識、教育和亡靈的救度進行，在抽象、深奧的教義基礎上，用具象的語言、事例和藝術手法，潛移默化地感化和教育眾生。佛教認為對死亡的教育是要揭開死亡的神秘，把生與死的真理告訴更情眾生，這是佛心最偉大的體現，是智慧和慈悲的顯現，讓人們從死亡的恐懼中看到光明，看到希望。這種光明、希望、若即若離，似隱似現，仿佛唾手可得，似乎又遠在天邊，只更“見空性，發悲心”，才能透過死亡真正得到快樂。

參考書目：

1、《西藏度亡經》連華生著 徐進夫譯 宗教文化出版社 1995出版

2、《西藏生死之書》（美）索甲仁波切著 鄭振煌譯 中國社會科學出版 1999年出版

3、《藏傳佛教》才讓著 民族出版社 1999年出版

4、《藏族原始宗教》周錫銀 望潮著 四川人民出版社 1999年出版

5、《喇嘛廟——佛的世界》李冀成 四川人民出版社 1986年出版-126-篇三：写导游词教学实录

《写导游词》课堂教学实录

执教：浙江省 臧学华

整理：广西省 张 燕

【教学目标】

1.能联系生活经验推荐桂林的一处景点，尝试从景点风光或景点知识或景点故事传说等角度收集并整理此处景点的资料。

2.在学习范文、与课文比较中，了解导游词讲究口语化、注重互动交流的特点；根据表达的需要，选取收集的资料，能从景点风光或景点知识或与景点有关的故事、传说，以导游的身份写导游词。

3.通过学写导游词，愿意向别人推荐家乡的景点，感受家乡桂林的美丽。

课前交流互动：

1、我们是中 小学48班，是不是？（是）

2、第一次见面，自我介绍一下：我姓 臧，名学华，很多人写我的姓都会加上草字头，加上草字头是什么字？（如果加上草字头的话是就是西藏的藏字啦！）还可以读什么？（还可以读成cang藏字）做迷藏的藏。没有草字头读什么（臧）再读一遍，我的名字叫（臧学华）。看到了我的样子，知道了我的名字，我们就算（认识了），通过一堂课的学习，相信课堂结束之后，我们就成了（朋友）。我来自浙江，浙江和广西桂林相隔一千四百多公里，熟话说：“有缘千里来相会”，我们的缘分还真不浅，26号那天，我一抽签，就抽到了你们班，我们就有了这个缘分。很高兴和我们同学一起学习交友。

3、桂林这个地方，山清水秀，洞奇石美，闻名天下，你们在这学习生活，可真幸福！桂林的什么地方最好玩？你说（桂林的象鼻山最好玩）什么景点令你印象最深？你说（我对两江四湖的印象最深）他特别喜欢两江四湖。你说，你哪儿印象最深刻啦？（我对。。印象最深）非常壮观是吧？还有，你最喜欢哪里？你说（我最喜欢。。象鼻山）是我们桂林市的城徽对不对？（对）

4、除了桂林，你还去哪游玩过？请你（我还去泉州玩过）你说。。指名回答。看来同学们去过的地方真不少，下面我们欣赏一些我国的名胜古迹，如果，你认出是哪，可以大声的说出来。（出示课件）这是（北京故宫）北京故宫，这是（指名回答）对这是杭州西湖。这是。。。这里呢？（黄山）五岳归来不看山，黄山归来不看岳就是它。这是呢？（福建土楼）福建客家的土楼被美国误认为是导弹发射基地。这是（峨眉山）峨眉天下秀，（黄鹤楼）李白曾经在那为孟浩然送行，对吧？这是哪？宝岛台湾。再看（长江）很正确，长江三峡。（出示图，学生直接说景点名字）都认识，美吗？（美）

一、导入

1、这两天，全国各地的老师来桂林参加活动，同学们推荐了桂林特别值得游览的景点，还完成了资料的收集，真好。我对同学们收集的资料进行了整理，有27位同学推荐了象鼻山，有9位同学推荐了漓江，今天我们要为推荐的景点写导游词。

二、认识导游词，区分导游词和课文的相同和异同。

1、导游词该怎么写呢？我们来先听一听导游的讲解好吗？（好）

（播放赵州桥的导游讲解：各位游客大家好，欢迎大家来到赵州桥。我们先来欣赏栏板上优美的图案。大家看到了什么？对，是龙，一条条栩栩如生，请跟着我一幅一幅观赏。看，这两条龙相互遥望，水里吐着水花，是一幅双龙在天，两条龙前爪相互抵着，各自回首遥望。这副就是大家熟悉的双龙戏珠，请大家仔细看，这些龙游什么特点？是的，这些龙都是四爪，有的细长，没有鳞片，比较短小，这是隋朝龙的特点，有没有觉得，这些龙像是在游动？像活了一样。接下来自由观光，请注意保护文物，不要乱涂乱画。）

2、介绍的是哪？（赵州桥）还记得吗？三年级的时候，我们学过课文——（赵州桥）。还记得吗？课文的片段，描写赵州桥栏板上的图案，是这样写的，刚才视频，导游是这样讲解的，导游词和课文的描写，有什么相同和不同之处吗？

3、接下来，我们小组合作学习，探究这个问题。合作学习的任务有两个，一、（比一比导游词和课文有什么相同的地方？）第二个任务：（比一比导游词和课文有哪些不同的地方？最大的不同点是什么？）课文片段和导游词就在我们的桌上，好，我们四人小组开始探究吧！（四人小组合作讨论）

4、好了，我们开始交流。先来交流相同点，你觉得，课文和导游词相同点在哪？（我觉得课文和导游词的相同点都描写了赵州桥的景点。）

哦，都描写了赵州桥的景点是吧？

（我们小组觉得他们都把这个景点的主要的细节说清楚。）

这个景点的主要是什么呢？

（这是在介绍景点有几条龙，刻的是。。）

（我认为这几条龙，就是这个景点的特点）

用一个词说是景点的什么？

（概括的说是它的风光）给他掌声。

不同的事物，概括的时候给它的称呼是不一样的，人物我们可以说外貌，动物我们往往说外形，景点我们就说是（风光）就是你们发现的相同点。我们小组的合作和大家的交流，慢慢我们就弄懂了，明白了。

5、接下来交流不同的地方在哪？谁先说？

（我认为。。。不同的地方是：导游词前面有开场白）还有吗？（还有导游词上面加上了警示语）导游词前面有开场白，是对游客进行什么（欢迎）喔，是在欢迎他们。还有什么？

（导游词还有导游和游客的互动）欢迎是互动的一种方式。导游和游客互动交流有很多地方，我们找一找好不好？哪些地方是互动？找得出来吗？

（互动应该是：请一幅一幅的观赏。）

（对，这是龙。）先问一个问题：大家看到了什么，再说：对这是龙。这也是交流互动。

（请大家仔细看这些龙有什么特点。）这也算互动，还有吗？

（是的，这些龙都是四爪，有的细长，没有鳞片，比较短小。）前面导游先问了，然后再答，这也可以是互动。

（接下来自由观光，请注意保护文物，不要乱涂乱画。）这也是对游客进行互动，还有刚才大家提到的，开场跟游客打的招呼，是不是？（是）很好！刚才我们讲了，导游跟游客互动交流的时候，会跟游客打招呼欢迎，有的时候还会提示，有的时候，用一些问题引导游客们参观游览。是不是这样？（是）课前交流，我们去过很多地方，你们到了一处景点，导游除了跟我们介绍那里的风光之外，还会跟我们说些什么？

（我觉得还会跟我们说景点的传说。）你到哪个景点听过传说？（导游还会介绍景点的历史。）传说会介绍，讲一点故事，讲一点传说，是不是这样？

6、（小结：）通过我们的小组合作学习，对比课文和导游词，结合我们的旅游经验，我们发现，导游词的内容可以写景点的风光，也可以介绍有关景点的故事和传说，还有同学说的，相关的历史。是不是？导游词最大的特点就是跟游客的互动交流。要跟游客有礼貌的欢迎，要引导他们参观游览，有的时候还要提示一些注意事项，是不是？（是）好，那明白了导游词的特点，现在写有底气了吗？（有）那么接下来，我们就要为自己推荐的景点写导游词。

7、根据我们的课前资料收集单。这两位同学：李嘉琪和张耀明，这两位同学的资料收集单整理得很好，而且干净整洁，书写漂亮。给他们鼓鼓掌！还有这些同学，他们收集的景点风光很吸引我；这些同学收集的故事传说，让我印象深刻；还有这四位同学整理的其他方面的资料让我很感兴趣。资料收集得好，写导游词就方便了，接下来，我们就开始写导游词。我们用大约十分钟的时间来完成，好吗？（好）

三、生写导游词，师巡堂指导。

四、生评价。

1、写好的同学，我们发现，下面有一张评价清单，你可以读一读你自己写的导游词，对照评价清单，给自己评一评，打上勾。

2、自评好了，小组每两个同学互相交换，给对方评一评，在互评栏里打上勾。

3、好，停笔了。没有写完的同学，等下讲评完了以后再写，好吧？两人之间的互评没有评完，赶快评一下。

4、我们班同学很会写，洋洋洒洒，格子都不够，是吧？

五、老师点评：

1、好了，我们来看这位同学叫张悦池，我们来看看他的导游词，对照评价，给他评一评，并给他提提修改意见。我们先听他读一读。

（各位游客们：大家好，我是你们的导游张悦池，今天由我带领大家游览桂林山水甲天下的一个a级景点——漓江。它以桂林市为中心，北起兴安灵渠，南到阳朔，一水相连，贯穿南北。千百年来，漓江的百里画卷，江水清澈，奇洞美石，绿树环江，不知陶醉了多少文人墨客。今天由我带领你们的旅程到此结束，你们一定觉得我的讲解很精彩吧，下次有时间，一定要来这山美水美的小城市喔！谢谢大家！）

还有点小导游的味道，那我们来评一评，他重点介绍了什么？你说。（我认为他重点介绍了漓江的风光。）

风光重点介绍，他把内容讲清楚了吗？

（我认为，他没有把主要内容讲清楚。）

主要内容讲清楚了，可同学觉得不够具体，是不是？那是臧老师给的格子太小了。我本来觉得四年级不会写那么多，没想到你们那么厉害！好，我们再来看他的互动交流，哪儿体现了？

（我举得互动交流他的开场白体现了。）还有吗？

（还有第二自然段的第一句话体现了。）这里有，是不是？那么对他的导游词，你还有什么修改建议吗？

你讲！（我给他提一点修改建议：多了“一定”。）“一定觉得”多了“一定”，用词要。。一点更好，他的建议，你接受吗？（接受）还有吗？

（你为什么马上写了：各位游客下次再来？）游客还意犹未尽呢。我们来看，刚才他读的时候，这个地方漏字了，是不是？漏字了，下次补好。

看来写导游词不仅要关注导游词的特点，还有注意用词的准确，语句的通顺对不对？很好，谢谢你，掌声！

我们再来请最后一位同学。（大家好！想认识桂林的风光吗？那就和我一同走进象鼻山吧！象鼻山。。，位于桂林市桃花江与漓江汇流处。。。是一个。。被人们称为桂林山水的象征。象鼻山以神奇著称，它的神奇首先是。。。看桂林风光是多么美丽呀！你们喜欢吗？）

他给自己三个勾全打上了，你们同意吗？

（不同意，他没有讲什么传说故事，我没有听懂他在说什么。）

他介绍的也是象鼻山的风光，你觉得如果加上传说故事，就更好了，是不是？（对）好，你接受吗？（接受）

有没有介绍象鼻山的，觉得自己讲得比他还好的？请你吧！

正好，臧老师26号也到桂林的景点走走，给你配上图，现在，我也是其中的一位游客了，请你为我们讲解一下。

（各位游客，大家好，我是今天的导游李清。，现在我们来到了桂林的城徽——象鼻山，它位于桂林市桃花江与漓江汇流处，由于象鼻山像一只大象，在江边畅饮，被称为象鼻山。来，我们上船吧，小心一点，别滑倒了。大家先听我朗诵诗歌，猜猜我说的是哪首诗？水底有明月，水上明月浮。水流月不去，月去水还流。好，猜吧！对了，是《河水月洞影》大家小心下船，别掉入水中，大家注意一下，不要到水边玩，不要乱画。好自由活动吧！）

你看，老师们都给你掌声了，谢谢你的导游，相信下课之后，老师们迫不及待都去到象鼻山游玩一番。

六、同学们的导游词写得好，讲得又出色，相信老师们都比较信了，桂林的山水非常的秀美。刚刚过去的十一黄金周，我们桂林就接待了122.38万的游客，多吗？（多）我相信以后，说不定以后在座的同学就会成为一位优秀的导游。到六年级，我们还有一项活动，口语交际活动，要担任旅游大使，到时候我们根据自己设计的游览线路，介绍风景名胜，或是景点风光，相信到时候你们会更加出色。这节课我们就上到这，谢谢中华小学四年级48班的同学，谢谢你们的刘老师。下课。

第二篇：西藏英文导游词 服饰

Both man and woman wear gowns in Tibet.(在西藏,人们都穿着长袍)The pattern of the gowns is loose,large front with long sleeves.(这种长袍的样式很宽松，前面有很长的大大的袖子）Woman's gowns can be pided into two kinds:with sleeves,no sleeves.(女式的长袍分为有袖和无袖两种）The materials

can

be

cotten，satin,woolen cloth,tweed,lambskin,etc.（材料有棉花，缎子，毛纺布，粗花呢和小羊皮等等）

Silk ribbons are used to be belt to fix gowns on the bodies.（绸带是用于把长袍绑在身体上的）

And women wear colourful aprons over gowns,but in Lhasa,the capital city ,only married women wear aprons.（女士们在长袍外面穿着彩色的围裙，但是，在省会城市拉萨，男的只娶穿围裙的女人）

In Tibet people in different regions use different animals' fur to edge their gowns,for example in Chamdu Prefecture people use tigers' fur ,leopards' fur and otters' fur,in Konbu Prefecture they use monkeys' fur.(在西藏，不同地区的人们用不同动物的皮毛来做他们长袍的修边，比如说，在的人们用老虎和豹，獭的皮，在 地方他们用猴子的皮）

Also in various places people use different jewels to be their ornaments and head adornments.（同时不同地方的人们用不同的宝石作为装饰和头饰）

For instance in Lhasa and Shigatse women wear ambulets which are made golds and inlaid with turquoises hung on chests,earrings and bracelets,they wear four--flabbed brocade hats,on special occassions they wear X like head--adornments inlaid with corals and pearls.（比如说在拉萨和山南的妇女戴着金制的头饰，嵌有绿松石的装饰在胸膛，Men wear ear-rings and hang knives on the ribbon belts of gowns.（男人戴着耳环，把刀挂在长袍的丝带上）

All in all,Tibetan traditional clothes and ornaments are brilliant and exquisite.（总之，西藏的传统服饰是充满智慧的和高雅的）

第三篇：西藏导游词(英文)

Tibetan

The Tibetan population, at around 4.59 million, is mainly distributed in the “Tibet Autonomous Region”, Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces.Tibetan is an old nationality in China.According to historical records, early before the Qin and Han dynasties, the ancestors of the Tibetans gathered along the banks of the middle reach of the Brahmaputra.Due to the vast grasslands and lush pastures, sheep, goat and yak were easily fed and stockbreeding gradually became their main economic support.They also engaged in agriculture and highland barley, a grain which is the material of zanba and ghee.Wheat, peas and canola are also planted.Zanba, mutton and beef are the staple food of Tibetans.In some areas, rice and noodles are also a regular part of the diet.Tea with butter or milk, sour milk and cheese are the favorites of all Tibetans.With a long history, Tibetans have their own language and letters.The wide use of Tibetan language promotes the economic and cultural exchange between the Tibetan and Han people.Tibetans also have their own calendar, in which November 1st is their New Year.The period from the 10th century to 16th century was the golden age of Tibetan culture.Tibetan art has a dual character: on the one hand, it seems related to Indian art, with its artistic patterns and stress on deep red, blue and green;on the other, it is distinctively Tibetan, different from both the East and the West.Tibetan garments still keep with the original styles.Both men and women wear long-sleeved silk or cloth jackets topped with loose gowns tied with a band on the right.Men wear trousers and women wear skirts.All men and women wear woolen or leather boots.Both genders keep long hair and like to wear ornaments.Men usually wear a braid coiled on top of the head.Women, when coming of age, begin to plait their hair into two braids or many tiny ones adorned with ornaments.Tibetans believe in Lamaism(a branch of Buddhism).Buddhism was introduced in the 13th century and from the 13th to 16th centuries Buddhism prevailed in Tibet.Buddhist temples were widely built throughout Tibet during this time.of these temples Ganden Monastery, Drepung Monastery, Sara Monastery and the Potala Palace are the most famous.Tibetans have many taboos that mould their daily life.Shrimp and fish, eggs, and the meat from dogs, donkeys, horses, and cats are forbidden in their diet.Cutting, fishing, hunting and nudity are forbidden near the temple.Inside men and women cannot sit together.Most Tibetan festivals are religious.The Buddha-Unfolding Festival(Festival to Worship the Buddha statues)is held in the Tashihunpo Monastery in the fifth month of the Tibetan calendar.The festival lasts for three days, and different Buddha statues are exhibited for worship each day.Other main Tibetan festivals include the Shoton Festival, Great Prayer Festival, Butter Lamp Festival, Saga Dawa Festival, Gyangtse Horse-Race Festival, Nakchu Horse-Race Festival, and Yarlung Culture Festival.History

The Tibetans first settled along the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet.Evidence of the new and old stone age culture was found in archaeological excavations at Nyalam, Nagqu, Nyingchi and Qamdo.According to ancient historical documents, members of the earliest clans formed tribes known as “Bos” in the Shannan area.In the 6th century, the chief of the Yarlung tribe in the area became leader of the local tribal alliance and declared himself the “Zambo”(king).This marked the beginning of Tibetan slavery society and its direct contacts with the Han people and other ethnic groups and tribes in northwest China.At the beginning of the 7th century, King Songzan Gambo began to rule the whole of Tibet and made “Losha”(today's Lhasa)the capital.He designated official posts, defined military and administrative areas, created the Tibetan script, formulated laws and unified weights and measures, thus establishing the slavery kingdom known as “Bo,” which was called “Tubo” in Chinese historical documents.After the Tubo regime was established, the Tibetans increased their political, economic and cultural exchanges with the Han and other ethnic groups in China.The Kingdom of Tibet began to have frequent contacts with the Tang Dynasty(618-907)and the Tibetan and Han peoples got on well with each other.In 641, King Songzan Gambo married Princess Wen Cheng of the Tang Dynasty.In 710, King Chide Zuzain married another Tang princess, Jin Cheng.The two princesses brought with them the culture and advanced production techniques of Central China to Tibet.From that time on, emissaries traveled frequently between the Tang Dynasty and Tibet.The Tibetans sent students to Changan, capital of the Tang Dynasty, and invited Tang scholars and craftsmen to Tibet.These exchanges helped promote relations between the Tibetans and other ethnic groupss in China and stimulated social development in Tibet.From the 10th to 12th century, Tibet fell apart into several independent regimes and began to move towards serfdom.It was at this time that Buddhism was adapted to local circumstances by assimilating certain aspects of the indigenous religion, won increasing numbers of followers and gradually turned into Lamaism.Consisting of many different sects and spread across the land, Lamaism penetrated into all spheres of Tibetan life.The upper strata of the clergy often collaborated with the rich and powerful, giving rise to a feudal hierarchy combining religious and political power and controlled by the rising local forces.The Yuan Dynasty(1279-1368)founded by the Mongols in the 13th century brought the pided Tibet under the unified rule of the central government.It set up an institution called Xuanzhengyuan(or political council)and put it in charge of the nation's Buddhist affairs and Tibet's military, governmental and religious affairs.Phagsba, a Tibetan lama, was given the title of imperial tutor and appointed head of the council.The Yuan court also set up three government offices to govern the Tibetan areas in northwest and southwest China and Tibet itself.The central government set up 13 Wanhu offices(each governing 10,000 households)in Inner and Outer Tibet east of Ngari.It also sent officials to administer civil and military affairs, conduct census, set up courier stations and collect taxes and levies.Certificates for the ownership of manors were issued to the serf owners and documents given to local officials to define their authority.This marked the beginning of the central authorities' overall control of Tibet by appointing officials and instituting the administrative system there.The ensuing Ming Dynasty(1368-1644)carried over the Tusi(headmen)system in the Tibetan areas in northwest and southwest China.In Tibet proper, three sect leaders and five secular princes were named.These measures ensured peace and stability in the Tibetan areas during the Yuan and Ming dynasties, and the feudal economy there developed and culture and art flourished.Tibet's contacts with other parts of the country became more frequent and extensive.The Qing Dynasty(1644-1911), the last monarchy in China, set up a government department called Lifanyuan to administer affairs in Tibet and Mongolia.In Tibet, the Qing emperor conferred the titles of the “Dalai Lama”(1653)and “Bainqen Erdini”(1713)on two living Buddhas of the Gelugba sect of Lamaism.The Qing court began to appoint a high resident commissioner to help with local administration in 1728, and set up the Kasha as the local government in 1751.In 1793, the Qing army drove the Gurkhas invaders out of Tibet and formulated regulations concerning its administration.The regulations specified the civil and military official appointment systems and institutions governing justice, border defense, finance, census, corvee service and foreign affairs, establishing the high commissioners' terms of reference in supervising Tibetan affairs.In other areas inhabited by Tibetans in northwest and southwest China, the Qing court continued the Tusi(headmen)system established by the Yuan and Ming dynasties, and put them under the administration of the Xining Commissioner's office(established in 1725)and the Sichuan governor(later the Sichuan-Yunnan border affairs minister).After the Republic of China was founded in 1911, the central government set up a special department to administer Mongolian and Tibetan affairs.In 1929, the Kuomintang government set up a commission for Mongolian and Tibetan affairs in Nanjing and established Qinghai Province.In 1939, Xikang Province was set up.The Tibetan areas in northwest and southwest China, except Tibet, were placed under the administration of Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Xikang and Yunnan provinces respectively.After the Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1921, its central committee clearly stated in its Agrarian Revolution Program that the feudal privileges of Tibetan princes and Lamas would be abolished.During its Long March northward to fight the Japanese invaders, the Chinese Worker and Peasant Red Army passed through Tibetan areas in Sichuan, Xikang, Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai, where they mobilized the poor Tibetans to carry out land reform and establish democratic political power of the laboring people.Areas inhabited by Tibetans were liberated one after another after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949.Tibet proper was liberated peacefully in 1951.Serf System

Before the democratic reform was carried out, the Tibetan areas were dominated by the serf system that integrated political and religious powers.The local government set up by the Qing Dynasty in Tibet, which was called Kasha, was run by four Kaloons(ministers), three laymen and one lama.The local government consisted of two offices.One was called Zikang(auditor's office), which was formed by four lay officials who administered all affairs about lay officials and audited local revenue, corvee and taxes.The other was called Yicang, a secretarial office formed by four lamas who administered all affairs about religious officials.The Tibetan local government accepted, in name, the leadership of the Dalai Lama or a regent.The Dalai Lama was served by several Kampos or lama officials who took care of the Dalai Lama's office and affairs of his residence--the Potala Palace.Owing to historical developments, there were some regional regimes beyond the control of the local government.In Outer Tibet, an internal affairs office called Nangmakang was formed by Bainqen's important Kampos, which was later called Bainqen Kampo Lija(changed into a committee after liberation).It accepted, in name, the leadership of Bainqen.Similarly, several other areas were governed by the local sect leaders or headmen.These were the legacies of the Tusi and Wanhu systems.The basic administrative unit, equivalent to a county, was called Zong in Tibetan and the unit under it, equivalent to a district, was called Si, short for Sika or manor.Some large Sikas had the status of the Zong.Certain tribal organizations still existed on a few pastoral areas, which were subject to the leadership of the Tibet local government.In Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, some Tibetan areas came under the administration of the provincial governments in the Qing Dynasty.But most of the areas were still under the jurisdiction of Tusi officials and big monasteries.The local regimes established on the basis of feudal serfdom that integrated political and religious powers were in the hands of feudal manorial lords, who were either lamas or laymen.They expanded the Tibetan army or formed local retainer forces to protect their reactionary rule.They formulated laws and regulations, set up prisons and used instruments of torture.Even the manors and monasteries had their own private prisons.They seized serfs' property by hook or by crook, punished them at will and executed serfs trying to run away or accused of violating the law.They used such shocking tortures as gouging out the eyes, cutting off the nose or hands, hamstringing or breaking the kneecap.Tibetan society was rigidly stratified.The people were pided into three strata in nine grades, according to the size of the land they possessed.The social ladder extended from senior officials, hereditary aristocracy and higher lamas all the way down to herdsmen, serfs and craftsmen.But, generally speaking, these people fell into two major opposing classes--the serf owners and the serfs.The Tibet local government was legally the owner of all the land and pasture.It in turn parceled out the land to the aristocrats and monasteries as their manors.The officialdom, the nobility and the clergy thus became the three major categories of feudal lords.The manors held by the officialdom, called Zhungchi, were directly managed by the local government and contracted out to serfs for rent.Part of the rent was used as remuneration for senior officials and the rest portioned out to government offices as their operating expenses.Noble titles in Tibet were hereditary or granted for meritorious services.Ranking was commensurate with the amount of property possessed.There were about 200 to 300 noble families in Tibet.About 20 of them owned scores of manors each.The manors of monasteries were bestowed by the local government or donated by the nobles.Some of them were the property of the monasteries and the rest belonged to higher lamas.A number of manors owned by monasteries were totally controlled by the top living Buddhas or lamas there.The three major categories of feudal lords and their henchmen accounted for about five per cent of the Tibetan population.The nobles and the monasteries each owned about 30 per cent of the land in Tibet and the remaining 40 per cent belonged to the local government.The land and pasture in the Tibetan areas other than Tibet were controlled by headmen, local officials and other members of the ruling groups and monasteries.The serfs included Thralpas and Dudchhong, who accounted for over 90 per cent of the Tibetan population.With no land or personal freedom, they were chattels of their lords.Thralpas were persons doing unpaid labor.In Tibet, a thralpa tilled a small piece of land rented from the manorial lord, which was called thralkang land.To obtain such a piece of land, a thralpa had to perform all kinds of services for the local government and do unpaid labor on the manor.Dudchhong, meaning small household, is a lower rank among the serfs made up of bankrupt thralpas.Dudchhongs were not allowed to till thralkang land.Instead, they had to depend on manorial lords or richer thralpas, doing hard work for them while tilling a tiny piece of land to feed themselves.Five per cent of the Tibetans were house slaves, called Nangzan.With no means of production or personal freedom, they were the most heavily oppressed class in Tibet and had to do the hardest jobs all their lives.Besides, some remnants of clan society still lingered on in the nomadic tribes in remote areas.On the other hand, in villages close to the Han people's farming areas, a landlord economy had emerged.Serfs in all Tibetan areas were overburdened with exorbitant rents in cash or in kind.More than 70 per cent of their annual proceeds were taken away by manorial lords, plunging them into dire poverty.Apart from paying exorbitant rents, serfs had to do all kinds of corvee labor, which was called Ulag.Taxes and levies in Tibetan areas were innumerable.Some levies had been temporary at first and were later made regular.In certain places, scores or even more than 100 different kinds of tax were recorded.All the manorial lords, especially the monasteries, were usurers.They cruelly exploited the serfs by forcing them to accept loans at usurious rates of interest or exchange of unequal values.Usurious loans often ruined the serfs and their families or reduced them to beggary or slavery.The serfs and slaves, who accounted for over 95 per cent of the population, were bound for life to the land of the manorial lords, ordered about and enslaved from generation to generation.They were freely given away as gifts, donations or dowries, sold or exchanged for goods.Long shackled by feudal serfdom, the population of the Tibetan ethnic group showed little growth and production stagnated.Culture

Under the rule of feudal serfdom, which combined political and religious powers, the Tibetans' social life and customs and habits bore obvious marks of their historical traditions and distinctive culture.As a rule, a Tibetan goes only by his given name and not family name, and the name generally tells the sex.As the names are mostly taken from the Buddhist scripture, namesakes are common, and differentiation is made by adding “senior,” “junior” or the outstanding features of the person or by mentioning the birthplace, residence or profession before the names.Nobles and Living Buddhas often add the names of their houses, official ranks or honorific titles before their names.All Tibetans, men and women, like to wear ornaments.Men usually wear a queue coiled on top of the head.Some cut their hair short, like a canopy.Women, when coming of age, begin to plait their hair into two queues or many tiny queues which are adorned with ornaments.Both men and women wear felt or fine fur hats.They wear long-sleeved silk or cloth jackets topped with loose gowns which are tied with a band on the right.Women in some farming areas wear sleeveless gowns or home-spun wool.Herdsmen and women do not wear jackets, but are clad in sheepskin robes, with sleeves, collars and fronts edged with fine fur or dyed cloth laces.Men wear trousers and women wear skirts.All men and women wear woolen or leather boots.Men have long waistbands while women in farming areas wear aprons with beautiful patterns.They use woolen blankets as mattresses or cushions and their quilts are made of sheepskin or wool.Poor peasants and herdsmen have neither mattresses nor quilts.They often leave one or both arms uncovered while tying the sleeves around the waist, making it convenient for working.The Tibetan gown which is very big also serves as both mattress and quilt at night.Lamas wear the kasaya, a patchwork outer vestment of purplish red felt.They wrap their bodies with long pieces of cloth and wear aprons, tall boots and monks' hats.Zamba, roasted qingko barley or pea meal mixed with tea, is the staple food of Tibetan peasants.Tea with butter or milk is the favorite of all Tibetans.Buttered tea is made in a wooden tub.In pastoral areas, the staple foods are beef and mutton.They eat out of wooden bowls and with short-handled knives which they always carry with them.The Tibetans take five or six light meals a day and have a liking for qingko wine.Sour milk and cheese are also standard fare.In some areas, people also eat rice and noodles.Women in pastoral areas use butter as ointment to protect their skin.Lamas may eat meat.People in the farming areas live in stone houses while those in pastoral areas camp in tents.The Tibetan house has a flat roof and many windows, being simple in structure and color.of a distinctive national style, Tibetan houses are often built on elevated sunny sites facing the south.In the monasteries, the main hall also serves as the prayer hall, with dagobas of different sizes built in front of the main entrance for burning pine and cypress twigs.There are numerous prayer wheels, which are to be turned clockwise in praying for happiness and hoping to avert disaster.Communications were poor in the old days, with yaks and mules as the chief means of transport.Riding horses were reserved for the manorial lords, who decorated the saddles according to their ranks and positions.Cattle hide rafts, wooden boats and canoes hewed out of logs were used in water transportation.Suspension, cable and simple wooden bridges were seen occasionally.In some big towns and monasteries, there were a few carpenters, blacksmiths, stone carvers and weavers.They, too, had to perform services and pay taxes to manorial lords and were looked down upon by other people.Farmers used crude implements such as iron plough shares, hoes, sickles and rakes and wooden tools.Cultivation was extensive, with crop rotation and fallow.Weeding and manuring were done very rarely, resulting in low output.In livestock breeding areas, the tools were even more primitive.Herds were moved about with the seasons, and the herdsmen never laid aside fodder nor built sheds for the winter.Farmers and livestock breeders had no way of resisting natural calamities and pests, but praying to gods for protection.Natural disasters usually devastated large tracts of land and took heavy tolls of animals.The Tibetan family is male-centered and marriage is a strictly inner-class affair.Marriage relationships vary from place to place.In some areas, cousins on the male line are forbidden to marry while cousins on the female line who are several times removed are allowed to marry each other.In other areas, cousins on the male line who are several times removed may marry each other, with no restrictions on intermarriages between relatives on the female line.Monogamy is the principal form of marriage.There is no inhibition on social intercourse between young men and women before marriage.The husband controls and inherits the property of the family and the wife is subordinate to the husband, even if he is married into a woman's family.The proportion of polygamy is small.Marriages between serfs had to be approved by their manorial lords.When serfs on different manors got married, one party had to pay a certain amount of ransom to the manorial lord of the other party or the manorial lord of one party had to give a serf to the other lord as compensation.Without the permission of their manorial lords, the serfs could not get married all their lives.The commandments of the yellow sect Lama, which holds a predominant position in Lamaism, forbid the monks to marry.Monks belonging to the other sects are free to marry and the weddings are held at religious services in their lamaseries.The most common form of burial in Tibet is sky burial, called Jator, meaning “feeding the birds.” The bodies are taken to the Jator site in the mountains and fed to vultures.Upon the death of a reincarnate living Buddha, a grand ceremony is held.Having been embalmed with spices and antiseptics, the body is wrapped in five-colored silk, and enshrined in a dagoba.The bodies of ordinary living Buddhas and higher lamas are usually cremated after being rubbed with butter, and the ashes are kept in a designated place as the last dedication to the monastery.But cremation is forbidden in the harvest season.All these forms of burial indicate that the deceased have gone to the next world.In the old days, ceremonies and religious rites were held for weddings, burials or births in the homes of manorial lords.For the serfs, however, these meant nothing but extra services.Women had to give births outside their houses and women serfs had to work only a few days after delivery.Lack of proper medical care and nutrition resulted in a very high infant mortality rate.The strict social caste system was manifested even in the use of language.The Tibetan language has three major forms of expression: the most respectful, the respectful and the everyday speech, to be used respectively to one's superiors, one's peers and one's inferiors.The social distinctions were also reflected in people's dresses, houses, horses and Hadas--silk scarves presented on all social occasions to show respect.Lamaism belongs to the Mahayana School of Buddhism, which was introduced into Tibet in the seventh century and developed into Lamaism by assimilating some of the beliefs and rites of the local religion called “Bon.” Lamaism is pided into many different sects, each claiming to be the orthodox.Apart from the Red sect, all the others, including the White sect, the Sakya sect and the Yellow sect, established at different times local regimes that integrated political and religious powers.The Yellow sect practices the institution of reincarnation of living Buddhas.The Dalai Lama and Bainqen Erdini are supposed to be the reincarnations of two Grand Living Buddhas of the Yellow sect.It was stipulated during the Qing Dynasty that the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, the Bainqen Lama and other Grand Living Buddhas of the Yellow sect had to be approved by the Qing court or determined by drawing lots from a gold urn.When a Grand Living Buddha dies, his disciples are required to choose a child, in most cases from a noble family, to be his reincarnation.Monasteries of the Yellow sect are scattered all over the Tibetan areas.The most famous of them are the Sera, Drepung, Zhashi Lumpo and Qamdo, as well as Lapuleng in Gansu and Ta'er in Qinghai.In the western part of Tibet and the pastoral areas of Qinghai and Sichuan provinces, the early Tibetan native religion, the Bon, known locally as the Black sect, is still active.There are also Taoist temples built by the Han people, mosques built by the Huis and some Christian and Catholic churches built by foreign missionaries in a few places.A large amount of cultural relics, including ancient scripts, woodblock, metal and stone carvings, have been preserved in the Tibetan areas.The engraved block printing technique was introduced from other parts of China.Some books were written in Sanskrist on loose leaves.Apart from the two well-known collections of Buddhist scriptures known as the Kanjur and the Tanjur, there are works on prosody, language, philosophy, history, geography, astronomy, mathematics and medicine as well as novels, operas, biographies, poetry, stories and fables, which are all distinguished for their unique styles.Many of the early works, such as the Thirty Rules of Tibetan Grammar, the four-part Ancient Encyclopaedia of Tibetan Medicine, Feast of the Wise, the epic Princess Wen Cheng, world's longest epic poem King Gesser, the biographical novels Milarib and Boluonai, the Sakya Maxims and the Love Songs of Cangyang Gyacuo(the Sixth Dalai Lama), are very popular and have been translated into many languages and distributed in China and abroad.Education in the Tibetan areas used to be monopolized by the monasteries.Some of the lamas in big lamaseries, who had learned to read and write and recite Buddhist scriptures and who had passed the test of catechism in the Buddhist doctrine, would be given the degree of Gexi, the equivalent of the doctoral degree in theology.Others, after a period of training, would be qualified to serve as religious officials or preside over religious rites.Tibetan medicine has a long history.Doctors of this school of medicine pay great attention to practical skills.They diagnose illnesses by observation, auscultation, smelling, interrogation and pulse feeling.They also know how to collect medicinal herbs and prepare drugs and are skilled in acupuncture, moxibustion and surgery.Tibetan doctors are especially outstanding in veterinary medicine.The Tibetans have their own calendar.They designate the years by using the five elements(metal, wood, water, fire and earth), yin and yang, and the 12 animals representing the 12 Earthly Branches.A year is pided into four seasons and 12 months;which have 29 or 30 days.The technique of Tibetan sculpture is superb.The portraits of the Grand Living Buddhas are the very images of the persons depicted.Tibetan painting features fine lines, well-knitted composition, vivid expressions of figures and bright colors.Tibetan architecture is unique in style, with buildings neatly arranged or rising like magnificent towers and castles.The Potala Palace in Lhasa was built on the sunny side of a mountain slope.With golden roofs and white-washed walls, the building rises naturally with the slope, looking extremely imposing.It is a masterpiece of Tibetan architecture.Maxims and proverbs are very popular among the Tibetans.The metaphors are lively and pregnant with meaning.Tibetans are also good dancers and singers.Their songs and music are well-modulated in tone and the words fit well with the tunes.They often dance while they sing.Their dancing is beautiful with movements executed either with the arms and waist or with legs and feet, and the tap dance is most typically Tibetan.Most of the musical instruments were introduced from the interior of China.Long-handled drums and trumpets are the main musical instruments used by the lamas.They can depict natural sounds, the cries of animals and the singing of birds that can be heard at a great distance.Religious dances are often performed by people wearing masks of deities, humans or animals.The Tibetan opera is one of the famous opera forms in China.It is performed without curtain or stage.In the past, all performers were men.Wearing masks, they danced and sang to the accompaniment of musical instruments.Sometimes the orchestra would chime in with the singers, creating a lively atmosphere.There are many taboos and activities that bear a strong mark of religion.Buddhists are forbidden to kill.Many wild animals, including fish, field vole, Mongolian gazelle and vulture, are under protection.The Tibetans, rich or poor, all have family niches for keeping Buddha statues.Most people wear a metal amulet box, about the size of a cigarette case, on the breast, and turn prayer wheels.It is forbidden to turn prayer wheels counter-clockwise and stride over ritual objects and braziers.The Tibetan New Year is the most important festival in Tibet.People in their holiday best extend greetings to each other and go to the monasteries to receive blessings.On the 15th day of the first moon, all major monasteries hold religious rites and all families light up butter lamps when night falls.It is also the occasion for lamas in the Ta'er(Ghumbum)monastery in Qinghai and the Qoikang monastery in Lhasa to display their exquisite and beautifully decorated butter carvings.Post-1950 Life

With the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, the Tibetan areas in the western part of the country was liberated one after another and the Tibetans there entered a new period of historical development.In 1951, representatives of the Central People's Government and the Tibet local government held negotiations in Beijing and signed on May 23 a 17-article agreement on the peaceful liberation of Tibet.Soon afterwards, the central government representative Zhang Jingwu arrived in Lhasa and Chinese People's Liberation Army units marched into Tibet from Xinjiang, Qinghai, Sichuan and Yunnan in accordance with the agreement.China's First National People's Congress was held in Beijing in 1954.The Dalai Lama, Bainqen Erdini and representatives of the Tibetan people attended the congress and later visited various places in the country.The State Council then called a meeting at which representatives of the Tibet local government, the Bainqen Kampo Lija and the Qamdo People's Liberation Committee formed a preparatory group for the establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region after repeated consultations and discussions.In April 1956, a preparatory committee for the purpose was officially set up.Regional autonomy and social reforms were introduced cautiously and steadily in one Tibetan area after another according to their specific circumstances arising from the lopsided development in these areas due to historical reasons.A number of autonomous administrations have been established in Tibetan areas since the 1950s.They include the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Yushu, Hainan, Huangnan, Haibei and Golog Tibetan autonomous prefectures and the Haixi Mongolian, Tibetan and Kazak Autonomous Prefecture in Qinghai Province;the Gannan Tibet Autonomous Prefecture and the Tianzhu Tibetan Autonomous County in Gansu Province;the Garze and Aba Tibetan autonomous prefectures and the Muli Tibetan Autonomous County in Sichuan Province;and the Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan Province.In light of the historical and social development of the Tibetan people, the central government introduced democratic reforms in various places according to local conditions and through patient explanation and persuasion.Experiments were first carried out to gain experience.A campaign against local despots and for the reduction of rent and interest was unfolded in the Tibetan areas of Northwest China in 1951 and 1952.In farming areas, people were mobilized to abolish rent in labor service and extra-economic coercion in the struggle to eliminate bandits and enemy agents.Sublet of land was banned.But rent for land owned by the monasteries was either intact or reduced or remitted after consultation.In pastoral areas, aid was given to herdsmen to develop production and experience was accumulated for democratic reforms and socialist transformation there.In the Tibetan areas of Southwest China, peaceful reforms were introduced between 1955 and 1957 in the farming areas.Feudal land ownership and all feudal privileges were abolished after consultation between the laboring people and members of the upper strata.Usury was also abolished and slaves were freed and given jobs.The arms and weapons of manorial lords were confiscated.The government bought out the surplus houses, farm implements, livestock and grain of the landlords and serf owners.It was clearly laid down in the agreement on the peaceful liberation of Tibet that democratic reforms would be carried out to satisfy the common desire of the peasants, herdsmen and slaves.But, in light of the special circumstances in Tibet, the central government declared that democratic reforms would not be introduced before 1962.However, the reactionary manorial lords, including monks and aristocrats, tried in every way to oppose the reforms.In March 1959, the former Tibetan local government and the reactionary clique in the upper strata tore up the 17-article agreement under the pretext of “safeguarding national interests” and “defending religion” and staged an armed rebellion in Lhasa.They instigated rebel forces in different places to attack Communist Party and government offices and kill people, while abducting the Dalai Lama and compelling people to flee the country.The State Council, acting upon the request of the Tibetan people and patriots in the upper strata, disbanded the Tibet local government(Kasha)and empowered the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region to exercise the functions and powers of the local government.With the active support of the Tibetan laboring people and patriots of all strata, the People's Liberation Army soon put down the rebellion.The Preparatory Committee began carrying out democratic reforms while fighting the rebels.In the farming areas, a campaign was launched against rebellion, unpaid corvee service and slavery and for the reduction of rent and interest.In the pastoral areas, a similar campaign against the three evils was coupled with the implementation of the policy of mutual benefit to herdsmen and herd owners.All the means of production belonging to those serf owners and their agents who participated in the rebellion were confiscated, and the serfs who rented land from them were entitled to keep all their harvests for that particular year.All the debts laboring people owed to them were abolished.The means of production belonging to those serf owners and their agents who did not participate in the rebellion was not confiscated but bought over by the state.Rent for their land was reduced and all old debts owed by serfs were abolished.In the monasteries, the feudal system of exploitation and oppression was abolished and democratic management was instituted.Land and other means of production including animals, farm implements and houses confiscated or bought by the state were redistributed fairly and reasonably among the poor serfs, serf owners and their agents, with priority given to the first group.In livestock breeding areas, while the animals owned by manorial lords and herd owners who participated in the rebellion were confiscated and distributed among the herdsmen, no struggle was waged against those who did not participate, their stock was not redistributed, and no class differentiation was made.Instead, the policy of mutual benefit to both herd owners and herdsmen was implemented.Under the leadership of the Communist Party, the million serfs overthrew the cruel system of feudal serfdom and abolished the regulations and contracts that had condemned them to exploitation and oppression for generations.They received land, domestic animals, farm implements and houses and were emancipated politically.In September 1965, the Tibet Autonomous Region was officially established.The Tibetans have since embarked on a road of socialist transformation, cautiously but steadily.The great victory in the democratic revolution and the ensuing socialist transformation brought about tremendous changes to the whole Tibetan community.Since 1980, the central government has introduced a set of special policies to enable the Tibetan people to recoup their strength and make up for the damage they had suffered during the “cultural revolution”(1966-1976).The policies include remission of taxation on collective and inpidual producers for a long time to come;authorization of private use of land and livestock by households for a long time while public ownership of land, forests and grassland is upheld;protection of the farmers' and herdsmen's right of determination in production and encouragement of a persified economy based principally on household operations;free disposal of farm and animal by-products on the market, and encouragement of inpidual and collective industrial and commercial enterprises.All these have brought forth the initiative of the Tibetan people and stimulated the growth of the local economy.Tibet has also received support and aid from the central government and other areas of China.From 1952 to 1984, the central government gave a total of 7.9 billion yuan to Tibet in the form of financial grants.To celebrate the 20th anniversary of the founding of the Tibet Autonomous Region, some provinces and cities and the state economic departments built 43 major construction projects in the region.These included a geothermal power station at Yangbajan, auxiliary facilities for the Qinghai-Tibet highway, the premises of Tibet University, a hotel, a theatre, a training center with audio-visual teaching aids and a stadium in Lhasa, a solar energy power station at Xigaze, and a hospital and an art gallery at Zetang.Rapid developments have been reported by all trades and services in Tibet.Starting from scratch, Tibet's industry boasted more than 300 factories and mines by the end of 1984, covering power generating, metallurgy, woolen textiles, machinery, chemical engineering, pharmaceuticals, paper making and printing.They turned out more than 80 products, with a total value of 168 million yuan a year.The bleak and desolate Bangon, Markam and Qaidam areas have become major industrial centers.Good harvests have been reaped consecutively.In 1984, total grain output reached 494,000 tons and the animals in stock by the end of the year numbered 21.68 million, nearly double the 1965 figure.Communications facilities also grew rapidly.There was no highway in Tibet before liberation.Since the People's Liberation Army marched into Tibet, several major trunk roads were built, including the Qinghai-Tibet highway(1954), the Sichuan-Tibet highway(1954), the Yunnan-Tibet highway(1976)and the Xinjiang-Tibet highway(1957)which linked up the Tibetan areas.A network of motor roads fanning out from Lhasa has been formed, extending to almost all counties.In 1984, the total length of roads open to traffic in Tibet reached 21,500 kilometers.The people's air force made the first successful flight from Beijing to Lhasa in 1956 and since then regular air services have linked Lhasa with Xining, Chengdu, Lanzhou and Xi'an.Roads also connect Tibet with the Kingdom of Nepal.The Longhai Railway runs through the Tianzhu Tibetan Prefecture in Gansu and the Qinghai-Tibet Railway starting from Xining has already reached Golmud in Qinghai.An oil pipeline extending from Golmud to Lhasa--a significant project for strengthening the defense of the southwest China borders and developing the local economy--has been completed.Radical changes have also taken place in culture and education.The one million serfs who were deprived of education before liberation are attending schools in Tibet or nationalities institutes in other parts of the country.With no institution of higher learning before, Tibet had three such institutions by the end of 1985 as well as 2,600 middle and primary schools, with a total enrolment 87 per cent more than in 1965.Many Tibetan professors, engineers, doctors, veterinarians, agronomists, accountants, journalists, writers and artists have been trained.The Tibetan language and customs and habits are enjoying respect and the outstanding heritage of Tibetan culture has been carried forward.Medical and health organizations have been established in all parts of the region, which had more than 500 hospitals by the end of 1984.A special team of medical personnel are making a systematic study of Tibetan medicine and pharmacology.The living standards of the Tibetan people have been rising steadily.The peasants, who lived in rickety sheds and never had enough food, have moved into bright and spacious houses with glass windows and stored up more grain and meat than they can consume.Brightly decorated furniture, television sets and cassette recorders have also made their way into the home of former serfs.However, about small percentage of the peasants and herdsmen have not yet shaken off poverty, although their living conditions are better than in the old days.Religious activities are protected by the government.Temples have been renovated and repair.Buddhist statues, volumes of scriptures, ancient porcelain articles and other precious relics lost during the ten-year turmoil of the “cultural revolution” have been returned to the monasteries.Among them was a bronze statue of Sakyamuni brought to Tibet by Princess Brikuthi from Nepal in the 7th century.It is now kept in the Qoikang Monastery in Lhasa.An institute of Buddhist theology has been set up and preparations are being made to restore the scripture printing house.Tibet now has several thousand lamas, and the government sets no limit to the number of monks in the monasteries.Tibetan officials and government functionaries are increasing rapidly.By the end of 1985, there were 31,900 officials and government functionaries of Tibetan and other minority nationalities, accounting for 62 per cent of the total.The principal positions in the governments at all levels are now held by members of these minority ethnic groups.Their ability and educational standards have been improving steadily.Monpa(Moinba,Menba)The Monpa(ménbàzú, Tibetan)are an ethnic group in the

People's Republic of China, with a population of 50,000, centered in the districts of Tawang and West Kameng.Another 25,000 of them can be found in the district of Cuona in Tibet, where they are known as Menba.of the 45,000 Monpas who live in Arunachal Pradesh, about 20,000 of them live in Tawang district, where they constitute about 97% of the district's population, and almost all of the remainder can be found in the West Kameng district, where they form about 77% of the district's population.A small number of them may be found in the district of East Kameng and Bhutan(2,500).The word “Monpa” means “People of the Mon-yul, which means land in Tibetan.They also share very close affinity with the Sharchops of Bhutan.Their language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family, but it is significantly different from the Eastern Tibetan dialect and is written with the Tibetan script.The Monpa are sub-pided into six sub-groups because of their variations in their language.They are namely: Tawang Monpa Dirang Monpa Lish Monpa Bhut Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Panchen Monpa Religion

The Monpa are mainly followers of Tibetan Buddhism of the Gelugpa sect, although several members of the Bhut Monpa are followers of Bön and Animism.In every household, small Buddhist altars placed with statues of Buddha are given water offerings in little cups and burning butter lamps.The belief in transmigration of the soul and reincarnation is widespread, as their life is largely centered on the Tawang monastery in Tawang district, where many of the young Monpa boys would join the monastery and grow up as Buddhist Lamas.The Bhut Monpa led a hunter-gather lifestyle and believed that the main totem and clan idol is the spirit of the tiger, who will torment any initiate while he sleeps.It is also believed that the spirit of the tiger is the manifestation of the ancestral forest spirit, who took a young shaman into the jungle to be initiated.Culture

The Monpa are known for wood carving, Thangka painting, carpet making and weaving.They manufactured paper from the pulp of the local sukso tree.A printing press can be found in the Tawang monastery, where many religious books are printed on local paper and wooden blocks, usually meant for literate Monpa Lamas, who use it for their personal correspondence and conducting religious rituals.Principal Monpa festivals include Choskar harvest, Losar, Ajilamu and Torgya.During Losar, people would generally pray pilgrimage at the Tawang monastery to pray for the coming of the Tibetan New Year.The Buddhist Lamas would read religious scriptures in the Gompas for a few days during Choskar.There after, the villagers will walk around the cultivated fields with the sutras on their back.The significance of this festival is to pray for better cultivation and protect the grains from insects and wild animals.The prosperity of the villagers is not excluded as well.It is a rule that all animals except men and tigers are allowed to be hunted.According to tradition, only one inpidual is allowed to hunt the tiger on an auspicious day, upon the initiation period of the shamans, which can be likened a trial of passage.Upon hunting the tiger, the jawbone, along with all its teeth, is used as a magic weapon.This is believed that its power will enable the tigers to evoke the power of his guiding spirit of the ancestral tiger, who will accompany and protect the boy along his way.Society

The traditional society of the Monpa was administered by a council which consists of six ministers locally known as Trukdri.The members of this council were known as the Kenpo, literally the Abbot of Tawang.The Lamas also hold a respectable position, which consists of two monks known as Nyetsangs, and two other Dzongpon.Lifestyle and Dress

The traditional dress of the Monpa is based on the Tibetan Chugba, although woolen coats and trousers maybe worn as well.The men wear a skull cap of felt with fringes or tassels.The womenfolk tend to wear a warm jacket and a sleeveless chemise that reaches down to the calves, tying them round the waist with a long and narrow piece of cloth.Ornaments that include silver rings, earrings made of flat pieces of bamboo with red beads or turquoises are worn as well.One can see a person wearing a cap with a single peacock feather round their felt hats.Due to the cold climate of the Himalayas, the Monpa, like most of the other Buddhist tribes, construct their house with stone and wood with plank floors, often accompanied with beautifully carved doors and window frames.The roof is made with bamboo matting, keeping their house warm during the winter season.Sitting platforms and hearths in the living rooms are also found in their houses.Economy

The Monpa practice shifting and permanent types of cultivation.Cattle including yaks, cows, pigs, sheep and fowl are kept as domestic animals, and meat is hunted using primitive methods.To prevent soil erosion by planting crops on hilly slopes, the Monpa follow terraced cultivation and terraced the slopes of the forest.Cash crops such as rice, maize, wheat, barely, chilly, pumpkin, beans, tobacco, indigo and cotton are planted.History

Legends, chronological and archaeological evidence that the Monpa, who were the aborigines of that area, once ruled a kingdom known as Monyul, or Lhomon that existed from 500 B.C.to 600 A.D., a kingdom that was ruled by the then-nomadic Monpa.It was believed that Monyul stretches from present day Tawang right up to West Bengal, Assam, part of Sikkim and even the Duars plains at the Himalayan foothills.Upon the collapse of Monyul, the Monpa came under the rule of Tibet for many years, although small Monpa chiefdoms were formed whenever Tibetan rule was not strong in the area.One of the good reminiscences of the ancient Monpa chiefdoms include the Dirang Fort constructed around the 11th century, which was meant to defend against invasions from neighbouring chiefdoms.Miscellaneous

The sixth Dalai Lama, Tsangyang Gyatso, is a Monpa by ethnicity.New Life

Tibet was peacefully liberated in 1951, and democratic reforms were introduced in 1959 after a counter-revolutionary armed rebellion was put down.During the action, the Moinbas joined the Tibetan people in support of the People's Liberation Army.Since then, they have shaken off their yoke and begun a new life.The days of having to survive on wild fruits and nuts, wearing animal skins and banana leaves and living in caves and forests have gone forever.Agricultural output has risen considerably through the development of hillsides, introduction of irrigation systems and superior crop strains, and ending of the traditional slash-and-burn farming method.Now the Moinbas have moved into bright, new electric-lit houses.Narrow footpaths and single log bridges have been replaced by roads and suspension bridges.The Moinba people now have many schools for both children and adults, and have trained their first generation of teachers, accountants and other professionals.Some young people are studying at the Tibet Ethnic Minorities' Institute in Lhasa and the Central Ethnic Minorities' Institute in Beijing.Men and women of Moinba origin are working as administrators at various levels of government.Blang

Population and Distribution

The Blang people, with a population of about 82,400, live mainly in the Mt.Blang, Xiding, Bada and Daluo areas of Menghai County in Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture in

south-western Yunnan Province.Some are also scattered in the neighboring Lincang and Simao prefectures.History

Records show that the ancestors of the Blang people can be traced back to the ancient ”Pu" tribe who were believed to be the earliest people to settle in the Lancang and Nujiang river valleys.When the Yizhou County was established in the Yunnan Province during the Han Dynasty, the Pu people were brought under the control of the Han Empire.In the Tang and Song periods, the Pu area was governed by the Nanzhao and Dali kingdoms.In the early years of the Yuan Dynasty(12712300 meters, the area has a warm climate, plentiful rainfall, fertile soil and rich natural resources.This is an agricultural community and the main cash crops include cotton, sugarcane and the world famous Pu'er tea.The Blang also raise livestock.Covered by dense virgin forests, these areas area are also abundant in valued medicinal herbs such as pseudoginseng, rauwolfia verticillata and lemongrass.In addition the area is rich in copper, iron, sulphur and rock crystal.Religion

The Blang worship a variety of gods.Influenced by the Dai people, in Xishuangbanna area they practice Hinayana Buddhism.Ancestor worship is also popular, while there are those who practice pluralism, shamanism and Totemism.Residence

Communities are made up of blood relations and they live in two storey houses similar to those of the Dai.The ground floor is used for storage and provides accommodation for the livestock.The upper floor is occupied by the family.A central fireplace in the main living room is used for cooking as well as a source of both heat and light.The erection of a new house is a communal affair.All the adults in the village will assist the family in the building work and once it is completed a great celebration is held.Fashion

Homespun cloth is used in the manufacture of clothing.Styles will vary according to the area in which the people

第四篇：西藏英文导游词 西藏艺术

In Tantric Buddhist iconography, the battle axe is held by ferocious deilies to symbolize severance of this worldly attachment.在佛教金铸文法本图解中，战斗斧是由凶残的神灵拿来象征阻隔世俗的依恋的。

Lesson Sixteen Tibetan Art 第十六课 西藏艺术

The land of snow is known as the“Ocean of Songs and Dances”and indeed singing and dancing are greatly enjoyed by Tibetans.这块被雪覆盖的土地作为歌舞的海洋被人们所知晓。却是这样，唱歌和跳舞是西藏人民非常喜欢的。During holidays and festivals,everyone joins in dancing,gaily singing hand in hand.在节假日里，每个人都参加到舞蹈中，手牵着手愉快的唱着歌。

Tibetan opera is known as Lhamo in Tibetan and is universally popular in Tibet.藏戏被人们了解是由西藏的拉姆仙女的故事和其在西藏地区的普遍流行。Tibetan opera is a composite performance art in which a story is presented through the medium of song and dance.藏戏是一种情景通过唱歌跳舞的方法呈现出来的复合的表演艺术。Tibetan opera is generally performed in the open while stage performances are rare.藏戏通常是在户外表演的，舞台表演很稀少。Unlike Chinese opera,only simple stage makeup is worn ,but masks are a feature of the Tibetan operatic style.不同于中国戏曲，藏戏只有简单的舞台化妆架，但带着面具是西藏歌剧的一个风格特征。The orchestral accompaniment is simple as only two percussion insturments are needed:a drum and a cymbal.简单的管弦乐伴奏，只需要两种打击乐器：鼓和铙钹。

Religious dance is called Cham in Tibetan.宗教舞蹈在西藏被叫做羌姆（跳神）。It was initiated by Padmasambhave in the Samye Monastery in the eighth century.它是在公元八世纪由Padmasambhave 在Samye 修道院发起的。According to an account in the chapter“Dance of the Four Guardian kings”recorded in Shakyamuni’s teachings on the four tantric mysticisms,Padmasambhave performed a religious dance to drive out evil spirits and thus ensure an auspicious inauguration for the newly-completed Samye Monastery.根据“舞蹈的四守护神”一章的说明，记录了释迦摩尼关于四部密宗的神秘的教义，Padmasambhave 为新建成的Samye修道院表演了一种宗教舞蹈去去除邪恶的灵魂来确保一个吉祥的落成礼。Padmasambhave’s biography reads:At the completion of the translation of scriptures in the Samye Monstery,the Lotsavas led by the senior Lotsava holding the translation,wearing masks and beating drums,formed a line and danced round the Central Palace three times to celebrate the completion of the translation of scripture.”Padmasambhave的传记中写到：在Samye修道院完成圣经的翻译的时候，译师们由资深的译师领导着举起译文，戴上面具打起鼓，排成一行，围绕着中央宫殿跳三次舞来庆祝圣经译文的完成。This was the origin of the religious dance.这就是宗教舞蹈的起源。

The drum Dance comes from the Lhoka region,it is known as the‘dro’.鼓舞来源于山南地区，被称作‘dro’。Danced with swift,abrupt movements,it calls for a highly skilled performance.迅速的起舞，突然地动作，它需要非常高超的表演技能。Dancers,wearing long hair,in striped costumes,stamp backwards and forwards in rhythm,drums at their waists and drumsticks in their hands,twisting their heads as they dance,all of which draws cheers from the audience.舞蹈演员们，留着长长的头发，穿着条纹的衣服，腰间跨着鼓，手里拿着鼓棒，扭着头，随着韵律向前向后跺脚，就像跳舞一样，这些都得到了观众的喝彩。The Repa Dance is from the Chamdo and Kongpo regions and the Tibetan-inhabited areas of Sichuan and Yunnan.热巴舞源于昌都和空波地区和四川云南的藏俗地区。An energetic dance,the performers circle with flying steps,men beating flat bells while the women drum.这是一个充满活力的舞蹈，表演者围成一个圈步伐灵动，男人敲锣，女人打鼓。At the height of the performance,the men perform pirouettes on one leg while the women beat their drums high above their heads as they twirl.在表演的高潮，男人单脚站立旋转，女人在旋转的同时把鼓举在头顶击打。

The Gor-shae is a round dance popular in the three major regions and the Tibet:Lhasa,Lhoka and Shigatse.Gor-shae是圆舞的一种在三个的三个主要地区流行：拉萨，山南，日喀则。This kind of round dance is performed by both men and women who form two concentric circles around a bonfire,and holding hands,shoulders touching,sing in alternate choruses of men and women.这种圆舞有男的女的围绕着一炉篝火形成两个同心圆，手牵着手，肩并着肩交替合唱。The dance may continue throughout the night until daybreak.舞蹈可能贯穿整个晚上直到黎明。

Ballad is popular in Tibet to transmit the history of nation,myths of Buddhism and folk tales down the generations by describing them with simple and short songs or poems.民谣用于传达西藏民族历史很是流行，佛教传说和民间故事通过描写他们的简短歌曲和诗传递给下一代。

Art and literature are deeply rooted in the history of Tibet,and in the splendid isolation of the Tibetan plateau folk tales,songs,and dances and opera have developed their own unique form and local flavour.艺术和文化深深地根植于西藏的历史，孤立的青藏高原的民间故事，歌曲，舞蹈和戏曲通过他们自己独特的方式和风格发展的非常辉煌。

第五篇：西藏英文导游词

TibetOverview

TibetliesontheQinghai-TibetplateauofthesouthwestborderofChina.Theaverageheightofthewholeregionismorethan4,000metersabovesealevel,forwhichTibetisknownas“RoofoftheWorld”.ThehighestpeakofTibet,alsothehighestinHimalayasandinthewholeworld,isEverestpeak,whichisashighas8,846.27metersabovesealevel.AlthoughapartofChina,Tibethasauniquecultureofallthereown.ItismainlyinhabitedbyTibetans,aminoritynationalityofoldandmysteriouspeople.TouristattractionsincludethepotalapalaceinLhasa,JokhangTemple,andanumberofBuddhistsacredplaces.Tibet(XiZanginChinese)istothesouthofXinJiangUygurAutonomousRegionandQingHaiprovince,tothewestofSichuan,tothenorthwestofYunnanandtothenorthofIndiaandNepal.Itspopulationof2.3millionpeoplecomefromavarietyofethnicgroupsincludingTibetan,Han,MonbaandLhota.ItscapitalcityisLhasa.NorthwestTibet,mainlyQingHaiplateau,ishometoavarietyofunusualanduniqueanimals.AcrossthenorthernexpanseofTibet,youcanseevastgrasslandswherehorses,yakandsheeproamfreely.Theworld’slowestvalley,theGrandYarlun-tzanpoRiverValleyliesineastTibet.NearlyallTibetansfollowTibetanBuddhism,knownasLamaism,withtheexceptionofapproximately2,000followersofIslamand600ofCatholicism.TibetanBuddhismwasgreatlyinfluencedbyIndianBuddhisminitsearlytime,butafteryearsofevolution,TibetanBuddhismhasdevelopeditsowndistinctivequalitiesandpractices.Awell-knownexampleisthebeliefthatthereisaLivingBuddha,whoisthereincarnationofthefirst,abeliefalientoChineseBuddhism.Itisfreezingcoldinmosttimeoftheyear.MosttouristscometovisitTibetonlyinthewarmestseasons,June,July,AugustandearlySeptember.