第一篇：英语本科毕业论文的提纲(翻译语境)

Contents

Ⅰ.Introduction…………………………………………………………………….1 Ⅱ.Classification of Contexts…………………...………………………………1

2.1 Linguistic Contexts……………………...…………………………………..1

2.1.1 Lexical Meaning………………………………………………………2

2.1.2 Grammatical Meaning………………………………………………...3

2.1.3 Pragmatic Implication………………………………………………...4

2.1.4 Style of Language……………………………………………………..5

2.2 Situational Contexts……………………………………………………….6

2.3 Macro Contexts……………………………………………………………6 Ⅲ.Contexts in Translation Process…………………...………………………7

3.1 In the Course of Understanding…………………….……………………8

3.2 In the Course of Representation…………………………………………8

3.2.1 Reproduction of Contexts in the Original Work………………………8

3.2.2 Conforming to the Conveying Customs of Target Language…………8 Ⅳ.Misconception on this Issue…………………………………………………8

4.1 Under-conveyance………………….……………………………………….9

4.2 Over-conveyance…………………………………………………………….9 Ⅴ.Conclusion………………………………………………………………………9

第二篇：本科毕业论文提纲

毕业论文提纲

一、论文题目：我国中小企业融资难问题研究

二、题目来源：本学期开始，本人正式开始找工作之旅，今年就业形势不太好，本学期大部分时间都花在了找工作上。10中旬开始至今，本人一直在东莞银行佛山分行中小企业融资中心实习，实习的岗位是银行客户经理，主要负责佛山地区中小企业和小微企业的融资工作。至今已在这个岗位上实习了将近3个月，对银行的信贷工作和中小企业融资难的现状有一定的了解，因此，经过认真的考虑，本人将毕业论文方向定在中小企业融资这一块。

三、论文结构：

第一部分：阐述本文的研究方法以及相关文献综述。

第二部分：对中小企业做简单的概述，介绍中小企业的界定以及中小企业融资的概念与

背景。

第三部分：介绍我国中小企业目前的融资现状、妨碍我国中小企业发展的主要问题和困

难。

第四部分：从中小企业自身和企业外部两大方面分析我国中小企业的融资融资难的原

因。

第五部分：从政府、银行和中小企业自身三个方面对解决中小企业融资问题具体建议。第六部分：针对前面五部分的研究作出结论。

第三篇：本科行政管理毕业论文提纲及

附件四： 提纲范例

对私营企业人才流失问题的思考

（提纲）

一、人才流失对企业的不利影响

（一）人才流失会增加企业的经营成本

（二）人才流失会造成企业凝聚力和士气的低落

二、私营企业人才流失成因的分析

（一）主观原因

（二）客观原因

三、解决私营企业人才流失问题的对策

（一）建立科学的人才选拔和用人制度

（二）企业要加强对人才的教育培训

（三）建立和实施有效的激励机制

（四）建立科学有效的绩效考评制度和薪酬福利制度

（五）科学合理的使用人才

（六）改善人才的生产、生活、学习环境

（七）企业决策者要不断学习，提升自身综合素质格式范文

对私营企业人才流失问题的思考

庄明欢

内容提要：当前私营企业的人才流失现象还比较严峻，私营企业应充分认识到加强人力资源管理的必要性和重要性，坚持“以人为本”的管理理念，并结合企业自身特点找出适合自己企业特色的留住人才对策。本文针对人才流失对企业的不利影响，分析了私营企业人才流失的成因，提出建立科学的人才选拔和用人制度；加强对企业人才的教育培训；建立和实施有效地激励机制；建立科学有效地绩效考评制度和薪酬福利制度；科学合理地使用人才；企业决策者要不断学习，提升自身综合素质等几方面对策。

关键词：私营企业 人才 流失

改革开放以来，私营企业伴随着工业化、城市化进程的快速推进呈现跨越式发展态势，特别是近几年，私营经济已逐步成为整个我国经济发展力量的重要组成部分，成为推动经济持续稳定、快速增长的生力军。但随着我国经济的进一步发展，市场机制在人才资源配置过程中的作用不断增强，加上人才市场的日益完善和健全，使得现代的私营企业在吸引和利用人才方面获得了更大的自由度，同时在如何留住人才的问题上也遇到了很大的挑战。在整个社会人才流动加剧的大背景下，私营企业人才频繁跳槽表现得尤为突出，这已成为私营企业家面临的较为棘手的问题。

一、人才流失对企业的不利影响

我们知道，人力资源在企业生产经营和管理中具有重要的地位，人才作为科学的管理理念、先进的营销模式和技术的载体，是企业经营和发展不可缺少的因素。正常的人才流动对于企业增加竞争优势，持续培养人才方面大有益处。但是，如果人才的流动过于频繁，流动面过大，影响到企业的经营稳定性和连续性时，对企业就会产生负面影响。

（一）人才流失会增加企业的经营成本

人才流失不仅会给企业带来了高昂的额外费用，而且还会给留下来的人造成心理上的消极影响。特别是掌握核心技术或商业机密的知识型人才的离职，致使企业可能无法立刻找到可替代的人选，从而导致企业关键岗位的空缺，也可能导致企业的核心技术或商业机密的泄露，这样一个恶性循环现象。企业需再培养一批掌握核心技术等知识型人才，必然要花费企业的人力、物力和财力。这势必影响或增加企业的正常成本运作，甚至可能对企业形成严重的损害。

（二）人才流失会造成企业凝聚力和士气的低落

企业里经常发生人才流失的现象，不管人才是什么原因离开企业，在其他人不清楚原因的情况下，将会造成多种猜忌、猜测、传言，产生从众心理。这些都不利于企业的正常运转，还会对企业精心塑造的人才管理形象带来损失。特别是企业优秀人才的流失，经常会在其他人才中引起强烈的心理冲击，这会导致人才对领导管理能力产生的怀疑，导致企业内部人心涣散，从而削弱和影响企业的凝聚力和人员的士气，容易形成连锁的不良反应。

二、私营企业人才流失成因的分析

文中所说的“人才”，主要是强调在企业中层的核心管理人才、掌握核心企业技术的人才和具有高销售能力的人才。

近年来，随着珠江三角和长江三角经济的不断发展，各地私营企业里不少的优秀人才纷纷“跳槽”到上海、广州、深圳、南京、苏州、杭州等经济发达地区的私营企业工作，以致部分私营企业出现求人才难，留人才更难的局面，导致这种人才流失的原因是有多方面的，本文从主观原因和客观原因两个角度进行了分析。

主观原因

现阶段，私营企业中流动性最强的往往是具有一定学历和专业技能的管理人员、营销精英和技术骨干。这部分人才，因为掌握管理知识、掌握企业核心机密、掌握销售渠道或掌握行业内较为先进的技术而有更大的选择范围和发展空间，其就业选择空间更为广泛，需求也越高。企业决策者的领导水平和领导方法也间接影响人才的流失，依据这样的前提，从人才和企业决策者自身考虑，原因主要有以下几点：

1、人才对薪金福利提出更高的要求

我们知道，金钱是市场经济中的主要交换媒介物，因此薪酬福利对个体始终是一个极为重要的影响因素。人才的薪酬决定了他的经济与社会地位，关系到他的生活质量与活动空间等等。有时虽然人才不太愿意呆在一家没有什么发展空间的私营企业里，但具有较高的薪金福利使得他们还是愿意留下来为企业做贡献。由此可见，薪金福利对留住人才、减少人才流失具有一定的重要作用。

2、人才对晋升前景有更高的需求

从成就需要理论中，我们了解到，没有人喜欢平庸，尤其对于那些年纪轻、干劲十足的人才来说，富有挑战性的工作和成功的满足感，比实际拿多少薪水更为重要。一个人才往往努力工作，希望得到晋升，或者希望能做更有乐趣和挑战性的工作。但许多私营企业的建立往往是家族、亲朋好友一起合作的结果，私营企业里的高级职位都是与企业具有血缘关系的人占据，而优秀人才对职位及权利有较高的需求却难以实现。因此，人才为了实现自己的发展目标，自然会选择离开该企业。

3、私营企业决策者的决策水平有待提高

当私营企业的决策者与人才在经营风格、经营理念、价值观等方面的发生冲突时，私营企业的决策者不懂得对于不同职位属性的人才，采取不同的管理方式。有的私营企业常常采用家长式的管理模式，在企业中从上到下企业决策者一个人说了算，完全失去了企业民主的氛围，这种管理方式会打击人才在工作上的主动性和积极性。私营企业决策者领导水平的高低，也是人才流失不容忽视的一个主观因素。

客观原因

人才流失除了人才及企业决策者的主观因素外，还有企业自身存在的一些客观因素，这往往是造成人才流失的主要原因。

1、私营企业管理制度不健全

私营企业内部管理制度不完善，内部管理混乱，缺乏基本的制度，组织结构不合理，从而导致人才无所适从，不知道怎样做才符合企业的要求。由于没有明确的工作标准，人才即使再努力工作，也难以获得企 业的认可，以至于造成对企业内部管理的疏忽，导致了许多制度规范建设的不完善。企业管理的方式主要还是人治，缺少成文的制度规范，导致了许多制度规范建设的不完善。即使有部分规范，实际上也引起不了大家的重视，工作追求简单直接，远远达不到现代企业制度的要求。

2、缺乏完善的人才培训制度

在当今世界，知识、技能、价值观变化的速度越来越快，学习已经不是人生某个阶段的事情。随着我国加入WTO，私营企业也不断面临着新的情况，过去的被动式的学习已经无法适应时代的要求，许多私营企业对人才培训不够重视，不能满足人才对自身素质提高的需求，没有长远的眼光，只顾眼前利益，不愿意在培育人力资源上投资，使企业发展缺乏后劲，人才缺乏继续工作的动力。私营企业要想在剧烈的国际竞争中取得有利位置，必须与时俱进地给人才补充新的科学文化知识。

3、缺乏有效的激励制度

企业的激励机制在某种程度上决定了私营企业的人才竞争力，它有物质激励和精神激励两方面，也是导致人才流失的主要原因之一。如果私营企业一方面不能提供相对优厚的物质待遇，另一方面又不能提供满足人才精神需要的具有企业特色的精神待遇，这样的私营企业就在很大程度上难以吸引和留住人才。

4、缺乏科学的用人机制

私营企业受制于传统制度人事管理制度，人事观念和人事配置手段落后，无法形成合理流动的优化配置机制，岗位设置不合理，再加上家族式的管理，不少私营企业的用人机制存在严重的论资排辈现象，人才 “出头”机会较少，造成人力资源的浪费，以致人事安排往往是因人设岗,缺乏一套科学用人机制，导致人才的聪明才智没有的得到充分发挥和体现的机会。

5、绩效考评管理不完善

导致私营企业人才待遇不公的原因，在于私营企业缺乏一个科学的绩效评估机制，不能把人才对企业的贡献与待遇公平合理地联系起来，这样使人才在工作上付出再多的努力也不会得到什么物质鼓励，导致人才不会心甘情愿为企业做出自己最大的贡献。企业的绩效考核制度不合理或者不完善，通常会打击人才的工作热情和积极性，往往是引起人才流失的直接原因。

6、私营企业人才成长环境欠佳

一直以来，私营企业的决策者一味追求产量效益而忽视了对人才的关心照顾，也忽视了人才精神文化的需求。有的私营企业工作环境简陋，许多设施简单、老化，企业间的交流活动少，未能形成良好的人才工作氛围。还有，企业的人文环境较落后。企业文化建设滞后，尚未形成一种关爱和谐的企业人际关系氛围。长此以往，不但使人才工作效率下降，并最终将导致人才另谋高就。

三、解决私营企业人才流失问题的对策

“人力资源是企业的第一资源”，人才是企业最宝贵的财富。任何一个私营企业都不希望自己的人才流动率过高，影响企业和组织的发展战略、组织目标的实现。同时企业人才都希望自己有一个稳定的收入来源，也不会希望自己过快的流动，这样会损失自己的时间、精力，更不 利于自身的职业生涯的发展。私营企业要解决这些矛盾，减少人才流失，除了充分利用我国经济发展自身的环境优势外，私营企业关键还要从自身着手进行调整。

（一）建立科学的人才选拔和用人制度

私营企业的管理制度的构建和完善是避免人才流失的首要措施。首先要建立科学的人才选拔、任用制度。要重视运用干部管理和现代人力资源管理学的理论和方法，建立科学规范的选拔任用制度，形成富有生机与活力、有利于优秀人才脱颖而出的选人用人机制。其次要建立科学灵活的用工制度，为企业人才提供广阔的发展空间和锻炼机会，吸引和留住人才。因此，企业的管理一定要制度化、规范化，通过实施现代企业制度来强化管理，只有依靠制度管理、文化管理，才能吸引人才、用好人才、留住人才，从而构筑一个能容纳人才的制度。

（二）企业要加强对人才的教育培训

教育培训是企业给予人才的一种福利，一个不能提高人才的技能和观念，没有人才发展机会的企业是很难留住人才的。人力资源是高增值性资源，它能在使用过程中不断实现自我补偿和发展。只要人才在企业工作中能力不断得到增值，企业得到的回报就愈大。还要通过对人才进行教育培训，增强人才对企业的归属感和团队意识，使人才心甘情愿为企业的发展做出贡献。因此，私营企业的决策者应该注重对企业人才的教育培训，特别要对年轻人才的培养，不断提升人才的综合素质，这样也满足了人才喝望知识的需求。

（三）建立和实施有效的激励机制 随着全球经济不断增长，企业间人才短缺的情况在加剧，企业为了增强竞争力，所以争夺人才也日趋白热化。为了吸引、激励和留住人才，许多私营企业在待遇、条件、股权等方面多管齐下。私营企业面对人才外流的压力，传统的激励机制已收效甚微。因此私营企业要最大程度地尊重知识、尊重人才，应当在建立科学的薪酬与激励体制上下功夫。企业也要根据人才的不同特点 “适时激励”、“适度激励”，注重激励的有效性、公平性、层次性、持久性，采用物质激励和精神激励相结合、正激励与负激励相联系、内激励和外激励相统一的方式，切实发挥激励机制最大的效能。

（四）建立科学有效地绩效考评制度和薪酬福利制度

绩效考评制度和薪酬福利制度对留住人才具有极其重要的作用。企业的绩效考评制度和薪酬福利制度不合理或不完善，不能提供合理的、有竞争力的薪酬，通常是引起人才流失的直接原因。许多人才对企业的薪资和待遇很不满意，这种不公平的绩效考评制度和薪酬福利制度，导致人才会选择离开企业。所以要建立以绩效考评制度和薪酬福利制度为核心的人才管理和激励机制，正确的评估人才的价值，正确的评价人才对企业的贡献值，以此为依据，制定在行业内有竞争力、对人才有激励性的薪酬。要合理拉开薪酬差距，要保证薪酬有提升的空间。保证人才在企业内有凭借个人能力和贡献而得到提升的空间。在绩效考核和薪酬福利方面，私营企业因为其与生俱来的家族式管理的特征，更容易把利益的天平向家族成员倾斜，这是最可能挫伤人才工作积极性的。

（五）科学合理的使用人才 私营企业决策者应该认识到，私营企业首先应该是一个企业，然后才有私营的特性，自己也只是企业的其中一员，要认同别人对企业的贡献，认同别人应有的地位和尊严，没有这种理念，要留住关键人才是非常困难的。私营企业如果想要留住人才，那么给予人才以足够的信任和个人事业空间是绝对必要的。合理科学地使用人才是留住人才的最好方法。在人才的使用中要时刻注重对人才群体或个体进行心理分析，给人才以公平的晋升和发展机会。在掌握人才心态的基础上应用适当的方法进行调节作用，做到留人先留心；同时要将企业的发展、岗位的需求与企业人才群体和个体的素质、技能相结合，让人才有展示其才华、实现其人生价值的大舞台，从而起到一种留人的作用。

（六）改善人才的生产、生活、学习环境

安全、清洁、舒适的环境能使人才在工作中产生愉悦、舒适的感觉，保持良好的心情，使人才全身心地投入到工作中去，有利于提高工作效率。除了改善人才工作的自然环境之外，同时不能忽视人才的人文环境。好的人文环境会让人才在企业里有一种家的感觉，因此公司要注重人文环境的营造。要制定统一的团队合作行为守则，使人才与人才之间有一种协作、沟通的精神；同时要制定优秀团队的标准，并作为业绩考核指标之一，定期考核。还要关心人才的日常生活，切实解决他们在生活中遇到的困难，解除他们工作的后顾之忧。总之，要一人一策，帮助人才解决最关键最迫切的问题，增强其对企业的认同感和归宿感。

（七）企业决策者要不断学习，提升自身综合素质

企业决策者的领导水平在防止人才流失上具有重要的作用。企业决策者要树立科学的人才观，学会尊重人才，要对人才的重要性有足够的认识，要有大胆使用人才的胆识和魄力。这都是企业决策者用人的水平高低的体现。企业决策者要更多的从人才和企业的利益一致性方面看待问题，要树立“双赢”理念。决策者观念的转变和正确价值观的树立具有重要意义。事实证明，越是高层次人才，越是看重企业家的个人素质和人才观念，看重和企业家之间的合作融洽和双方价值取向的一致。

综上所述，人才资源是现代私营企业保持竞争优势的一个重要资源和因素。而深圳的私营企业也正是在竞争激烈的背景下，认识到了人才的战略地位和作用，也进一步认识到了人才流失队企业造成的消极影响，进而在人才在企业中的定位上，明确提出企业竞争的根本是要从人出发。尤其是深圳的私营企业，不论从竞争上，还是从环境的日益发展上，都是异常激烈的，所以，管理着认识到深圳私营企业发展没有人才不行，也认识到在当前的人才问题上，首要的是要积极防止和减少人才的流失，维护企业发展的人才优势。这既是深圳私营企业面对的市场环境的要求，同时也是深圳企业竞争的必然要求。本文正是立足于此，分析了私营企业和企业管理者在面对人才时的问题以及如何寻求积极的解决办法。当然，不同的企业应根据自己的情况，采取不同的方式来控制人才的流失，但无论采取什么方式，都应注意“留人先留心”。在对人才的管理上，时刻跟进员工的发展情况，只有真心尊重关心人才，体察其需求，帮助他们成长进步，给他们营造一种能够发挥自己才能、实现自我价值的公平、融洽的环境和条件，才能换来人才对企业的深度认同，使得人才在企业中发挥自己的聪明才智，为企业带来竞争优势，同时也才能实现企业人才团队的稳定和事业的发展。也就是说，在企业和人才之间形成良性循环，以培植人才的优势来赢得企业的竞争优势，又以企业优良的人才管理为企业留住更多的人才。参考资料：

1、孙成志，《新编组织行为学》，中央广播电视大学出版社，2006年1月版。

2、李剑，《论新经济时代的人力资源管理》，企业管理出版社，2001年9月版。

3、（美）加里•德斯勒，《人力资源管理》，中国人民大学出版社，2005年9月版。

4、汪力斌 李小云，《人力资源开发的理论基础》，《中国人力资源开发》，2002年2月。

5、俞钰凡，《论人力资源的多元化管理》，《商业时代》，2004年3月。

6、孙海法，《现代企业人力资源管理》，中山大学出版社，2002年9月版。

第四篇：本科英语毕业论文旅游景点翻译[小编推荐]

On the Translation of Scenic Spots' Introduction

by

Thesis Advisor:

Submitted to the B.A.Committee in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Degree of Bachelor of Arts in the English Department of School of Foreign Languages of Langfang Teachers College May 2011

廊坊师范学院

本科生毕业论文

题 目： 旅游景点介绍的翻译

学生姓名：

指导教师： 二级学院： 系 别： 专 业： 年 级： 学 号：

完成日期： 2011年5月10日

Title: On the translation of scenic spots' introduction

Abstract: With the deepening of China's opening-up and the flourish of tourism industry, the translation of tourism materials has become translators’ important task.As a necessary element of tourism materials, scenic spots’ translation arouses more and more attention throughout China.How to make the precise translation out of the piled tourism materials is the problem the translators have to deal with.This paper mainly focuses on the translation of scenic spots' introduction which plays a significant role in the development of tourism industry.It introduces the common errors and theory foundations prevailing, and provides some possible solutions, intending to make the best version of the translation.Key words: scenic spots’ translation;Functional Equivalence;receptors’

response

题目：旅游景点介绍的英译

摘要： 随着中国对外开放和旅游产业的蓬勃发展，旅游资料的翻译成为了译者们的重要任务。作为旅游资料的重要组成部分，旅游景点的介绍引起了译者们越来越多的关注。如何在浩繁的旅游资料中获得精确的翻译成为译者们需要处理的非常迫切的问题。本论文着重探讨旅游景点介绍的翻译，因为这在旅游业发展过程中起到举足轻重的作用。该文章介绍了旅游景点介绍翻译过程中常见的错误和著名的翻译理论，并提出一些可行的解决办法以获得最好的翻译文本。

关键字：旅游景点翻译;功能对等;读者反馈

Contents

I.Introduction ………………………………………………………………….....1 A.General statement..........................................................................................1 B.Necessity of the precise translation of scenic spots’ translation....................2 II.Existing problems and causes of translation of scenic spots’ introduction.........3 A.Existing problems..........................................................................................3 B.Causes of unsatisfied translation...................................................................5 III.Prevailing translating theory..............................................................................6 A.Two levels of functional equivalence...........................................................6 B.Receptor’s response.......................................................................................7 IV.Possible solutions to existing problems.............................................................8 A.Addition.........................................................................................................8 B.Deletion..........................................................................................................8 C.Restructuring.................................................................................................9 D.Adjustment...................................................................................................10 E.Analogy........................................................................................................11 V.Conclusion.........................................................................................................12 Works Cited...........................................................................................................13

Acknowledgements

My sincere gratitude first goes to Mr.Gong, my supervisor, for his constructive suggestions, valuable ideas, great patience and encouragement.Without his help, the completion of this thesis would have been impossible.I owe great gratitude to all the teachers in the English Department.Their lectures and instructions have been of great help to my study.I would also like to express my thanks to my friends for their constant concern, generous help, and meaningful comments on the study.Finally, I must say I owe gratitude to my parents.Their love and encouragement have supported me to overcome difficulties and achieve the final success.I.Introduction A.General Statement Tourism industry is called the “Industry without Smoke” and has become one of the significant forces which step up the development of the economy.China is a country which is rich in various touring resources, and has a rather large touring market with great potential, thus attracts countless foreigners from abroad every year.Especially after China achieving the access to the World Trade Organization, tourism industry is becoming more and more commercial and globalized.As the important carriers of tourism information, scenic spots introductions are often used directly by tourism products promoters and potential consumers.Qualified scenic spots introductions can not only provide detailed tourism information but also attract more tourists.English versions of Chinese scenic spots introductions, should achieve the same aims, because it is the translated versions of tourism texts that have become the critical approaches to spread Chinese culture to the world and promote the development of Chinese tourism industry（Zhang Chunbo:25）.However, in many cases the translated version is unsatisfactory more or less in China.Since the quality of the tourism materials affects the foreign tourists directly and has a fundamental influence on their comprehension of China’s culture, how to make the precise translation out of the piled tourism materials is a severe problem the translators are confronted with.Translation is a complicated thinking activity which can communicate the information between two different cultures by means of linguistic symbols(杨忠：120).And then, what is the standard of a satisfied translation? The adequacy of translations has traditionally been judged on the basis of the correspondence in lexicon and grammar between the source and target languages.The correspondence has frequently been stated in terms of “equivalence,” even though the equivalence is often not used.There is, however, a serious problem involved in discussing the adequacy of a translated text primarily in terms of lexical and grammatical features, or even in terms of discourse structures.Translating means communicating, and this process depends on what is received by persons hearing or reading a translation.Judging the validity of a translation cannot stop with a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices（Li Ming: 23）.What is important is the extent to which the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text.According to Eugene Nida: It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors correctly understood and appreciated the text and the way in which the receptors of the translated text understand and appreciate the translated text(2001:113).In this thesis the author introduces some common problems in the translation of scenic spots’ introduction and translating theories prevailing nowadays.Upon the theories, this paper attempts to provide some possible solutions to the translation of scenic spots’ translation.B.Necessity of precise translation of scenic spots’ introduction

China is an ancient civilized country which has inherited innumerable cultural relics from our ancestors.With a vast territory, it embraces a lot of awesome scenic spots that have brought into China millions of foreigners to enjoy themselves.As globalization deepens, the scale of the tourists from abroad is on a sharp increase.And according to the World Trade Organization, China will become the No.1 touring destination by 2020, when there will have been about 137,000,000 people to tour.Therefore, our country first put forward the slogan in 2000: China will persist to turning itself from the strong touring country of Asia to the world.Considering those, we have known that tourism has become a sunrise industry.Owing to the cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many difficulties in the translation process.Many translators are accustomed to translate scenic-spot introductions based on Chinese mindset and ways of expression.As a result, inaccuracies and mistakes can often be seen in the translated texts（Wen Jun: 43）.In today’s China, the translation quality of scenic-spot introductions is far from satisfaction due to countless spelling mistakes, grammatical mistakes, and cultural misinterpretations, etc.Therefore, the translation of scenic-spot introductions and the research on it is necessary and urgent.Hence, the development of our sunrise industry necessitates the precise translation of scenic spots’ introduction.II.Existing problems and causes in translation of scenic spots’ introduction A.Existing problems

The scenic-spot introduction translations specially provide service for foreign tourists.The large cultural gap between China and the western countries makes the translation of Chinese scenic-spot introductions, which contains a lot of cultural elements, a hard nut for the translating job.The translators not only have to have a good command of both Chinese and English, but also be highly proficient in intercultural transfer.The readers of scenic-spot translation are a group of special audience who know little about Chinese culture and language, so translation plays a significant role in publicizing China.Although increasing attention has been paid to this field, the quality of translation is still far from satisfactory.So in this part, we are going to look into some cases of inappropriate and even false translation, so as to have an analysis of the existing problems in the English translation of Chinese scenic-spot introductions.In this way we may know more about the linguistic style, cultural features and expressional skills about appropriate English introductions of scenic spots.Example1:

(SL)[1]: 南山，面朝南海，是中国最南端的山。

(TL)[2]: Nanshan Mountain(South Mountain), facing Chinese South Sea, is the southernmost mountain in China.In the first example, “ 南海” is translated into “Chinese South Sea”, however, the correct English translation of “南海” is the “South China Sea”.So a more adequate translation should be like this: Nanshan Mountain(South Mountain), facing South China Sea, is the southernmost mountain in China.Example2:(SL):孔子（公元前551-前419年）是中国儒家学说的创始人。

(TL):Confucius(551～419BC)was the founder of the Confucius school of thought.In this example, “儒家学说” is translated as “the Confucius school of thought”.It’s not wrong, but it seems more like an explanation than a translation.In English, the word “Confucianism” can express exactly the meaning of the Chinese expression “儒家学说”.Therefore, there is no need to translate it as: “the Confucius school of thought” or “the thought of Confucius”.Example3:

(SL):感悟人生，感悟泥性，感悟瓷韵悠悠。(TL): Feel the life, feel the porcelain, and feel the history.The three “感悟” in the source language make the sentence paralleled and impressive, and it has achieved an effect of emphasis.In the target language, the word “feel” is also repeated for three times.Unfortunately, rather than have the same effect as its Chinese counterpart, this repetition makes no difference but making the whole sentence monotonous and tedious.To be more attractive and impressive, we can revise it by using different words sharing similar concept.Besides the monotonous translation of “感悟”, the word “porcelain” is not properly used here.Porcelain is hard white translucent material made from china clay, but it is not clay any longer.Therefore, it cannot express the meaning “泥性”.The refined version:

Touch the clay, know the history, and feel the life.Example4:(SL):“黄龙吐翠”（西湖十景之一）

(TL): “Yellow Dragon Spits Green”（《市民日常外语会话》北京新华出版社）The Chinese name “黄龙吐翠” has two meanings: On the one hand, it means that a clear spring is flowing out from the Yellow Dragon Cave;on the other hand, it infers that the whole scenic spot(Yellow Dragon Cave)is surrounded by green trees.The character “吐”here means present or look, when it is translated into “spit” in English, the meaning has completely been changed.Because “spit” often means “spitting saliva”, which gives us an unpleasant impression.Example5:(SL):舟的前方驾着一柄长舵，形如关云长的青龙偃月刀。

(TL)„is shaped like the sword in traditional Beijing opera used by Guan Yu, a general of the state of Shu of the Three Kingdom period(220-280A.D).It seems as if this translation is quite adequate, for it has added some information to explain about the sword and its master Guan Yu.However, this addition is nearly of no use.After reading this introduction, the foreign tourists still can’t figure out what is the sword like, for they don’t know anything about Guan Yu at all unless they have watched the Beijing opera.Thus in this sense, this explanation is completely invalid.It produces no effect other than making the whole sentence redundant.Maybe another simpler version will be better: „is shaped like the knife on the westerners’ dinner table.This version has omitted the invalid information, so it’s much more concise.What’s more important is that it sounds familiar to the foreign tourists and they can understand what the sword looks like immediately when they see this introduction.B.Causes of unsatisfied translation Language capacity of a translator is the fundamental element which influences the quality of translated version directly.A good master of listening, speaking, reading, and writing of a foreign language and mother tongue is only the first step to make a satisfied translation;furthermore, the translator should strive to grasp the essence of two different cultures.According to Wang Zuoliang: A translator must be a cultured man(1984)； that is to say “Learning a language is a kind of learning the culture and the habit of the country where the language is spoken”.Culture is the core, the source and the energy of tourism’s prosperity.And it is just the cultural elements contained in tourism materials bring about big difficulties to tourism materials’ translation, since the differences in the culture of Chinese and English are inevitably reflected in the process of language translation.Language is the carrier of culture, different geographical environments, historical conditions, religious beliefs, and social customs of different countries give birth to different cultures and languages.Culture is what the society thinks about and do, in turn language is the expression of thoughts(Sapir,Edward,2002).The close relationship between culture and language are tightly associated with translation.However, translation is not merely the transformation on the linguistic surface layer, but the communication and transplant of two different cultures.“For truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function.”(Nida, 2001: 82)

III.Prevailing translating theory

The main goal of translation is, no doubt, to establish a particular type of correspondence between the source text and the target text.The nature of the correspondence has been referred to “faithfulness” or “fidelity”, or more predominantly, the notion of “equivalence”.The term “equivalence” in translation first appeared in J.R.Firth’s writing when she stated that “the so-called translation equivalents between two languages are never really equivalent”(Snell, 2002: 37).With the development of linguistics and the study of translation in 1960s, “translation equivalence” became the focus of study.A.Two levels of functional equivalence

In the 1990s, Nida perfects his theory by taking the language and cultural differences into consideration.In his book Language, Culture and Translating, Nida puts functional equivalence into two levels according to the degree of adequacy: the minimal equivalence and the maximum equivalence.The definition of minimal functional equivalence is “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original reader of the text must have understood and appreciated it”(Nida, 1993: 118).Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable.The maximum functional equivalence can be stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” The maximum level of equivalence is rarely achieved except for texts having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information since it requires a higher degree of language-culture correspondence.Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on cultural factors in translation.In Nida’s view, “The most serious mistakes in translating are usually made not because of verbal inadequacy, but of wrong cultural assumptions”(Nida, 1993: 29).If regardless of the cultural differences, the receptors will find the translation requiring so many efforts to understand that they are likely to stop reading, unless they are highly motivated.Therefore, for a truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism(Nida, 1993: 110).In a word, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has offered a convincing answer to the disputes over literal and free translation lasting for 200 years and gives priority to the receptor over the forms of the language.B.Receptors’ response

When evaluating a translation, some translation theories just concentrate on message-conveyance of the target language, neglecting the role of receptors.Their main concern is that the message in the target language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.Therefore they make constant comparison between the message in the source culture and the message in the target culture to determine standards of accuracy and correctness.Enlightened by the communication theory, Nida attaches great importance to the role of receptor and the relationship between receptor and message by saying that “It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text”(Nida, 1993: 116).According to Nida, the target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.In producing a functional equivalence translation one must be constantly aware of the capacity and motivation of receptors(Jin Di &Nida, 2006:89).In other words, how to translate a message first depends on whether the target receptors can understand it or not.According to Nida, the functional equivalence is based upon the “principle of equivalence effect”.It is of great importance to estimate how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text.What’s more, Nida’s ideal situation is that the target receptors’ response to the target text should be the same to the original receptors’ response to the original text.Therefore, judging the quality of a translation cannot stop with a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes and rhetorical devices, but with whether the translated text has the same effect on the receptors as the original text has on the original receptors.IV.Possible solutions to the existing problems From the examples and analysis in last part, we can see the fact that the inefficiency is mainly caused by the translators’ neglect of the target language’s linguistic features and the target receptors’ cultural conventions.As Nida argues that “For truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism”(Nida, 1993:110), cultural factor usually plays a more important role in scenic-spot introduction translation.As a matter of fact, linguistic factor and cultural factor usually coexist in a scenic-spot introduction, and cannot be separated.Therefore, the translator shall take both of them into consideration simultaneously.Considering the existing problems of Chinese scenic-spot introductions we have discussed in last part, some possible solutions to these problems will be suggested in the following.A.Addition To Chinese readers who share the same cultural background knowledge with the writer, they seldom have difficulty in understanding the introduction.But to foreign tourists, as they know little or no about the background knowledge, it’s never an easy thing to understand it.Therefore, it is better to add notes to help foreign tourist understand the information, so as to compensate the cultural default of target readers.For example:

(SL):路左有一巨石，石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字。

(TL):To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big characters “Yun Wai Liu Chun”(Beyond clouds flow spring)written by Su Dongpo, the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty(960-427)If we just use Chinese “Yun Wai Liu Chun” here, foreign tourists will not be able to know the meaning of the four characters.In addition, almost every Chinese know who Su Dongpo is, but foreigners know nothing about him.The amplification of this famous poet here works well in compensating the cultural default of target readers and helps to show the high value of the four characters.B.Deletion As we know, Chinese scenic-spot introductions have some prominent features such as flowery expressions, rich rhetorical devices, paralleled structures, abundant citations, etc.By contrast, language for English scenic-spot introductions is characterized by precise sentence structure, plain expression, logic and rational writing, concise and natural diction, etc.In order to conform to the aesthetic standard of target readers, the unnecessary information and flowery decorations should be deleted so that a functional equivalence can be achieved.For example:(SL): 揽八百里微微武夷，扼三千里滔滔赣江，天地造化，租就瑞金山水的神奇，这里，钟秀毓秀，风藏气聚。

(TL): Here is a wonderful place famous for its natural beauties of huge green mountains and clear water.In the English version, the translation omits the redundancy without influencing the information transmission.(SL): 久负盛名的大东海水如碧、沙如脂、景如画。

(TL): Dadonghai is a famous scenic spot and a gift given by nature, the sea like jade, the sand like rouge, the scenery like picture.It is one of the sentences in the introduction of Dadonghai, a famous scenic spot in Sanya city in Hainan province.This translation is a typical word-for-word translation: 水=water, 如=like, 碧=jade;沙=sand, 如=like, 脂=rouge;景 =scenery, 如=like, 画=picture.The translator attempts to imitate the expression of the source language so faithfully that the translation is of no normal use.For the foreign tourists, it sounds awkward and is hard to understand.A refined version can be like this: Dadonghai is well-known for its clear water, white sand and picturesque scenery.C.Restructuring(SL):孔庙的东侧是孔府，是孔子嫡长孙实习的府第。

(TL)The Kong Family Mansion lies east of the Confucius Temple, being the place of eldest direct male descendants of Confucius lived and worked.This English translation is grammatically correct, but the sentence structure is not well organized.It’s clear that the location of the mansion is only minor information while the purpose is the focal point of the whole sentence.But in the translation, the minor information is placed in the main clause and the main idea in the subordinate clause, making the structure rather awkward.So the translation should be changed into: Lying to the east of the Confucius Temple, the Mansion of Confucius is the place where the eldest direct male descendants of Confucius lived and worked.(SL):古城池总面积 2.25平方千米，至今还居住着4.2万城市居民, 基本保持着明清时期(公元 1368—1911 年)的历史风貌。

(TL):It(the ancient city)occupies a total area of 2.25 sq km, has a population of 42,000, and largely maintains its historical appearance of the Ming and Qing periods(1368 ～ 1911).Such a long sentence as the source language in this example is smooth and coherent, without any problem.But when more than one English sentence is piled up without any connectives, just like the English translation in this example, they form a very unnatural and awkward sentence, which fails to conform to the features of English.A better translation would be to replace the former part of the sentence with a prepositional phrase, so that the three paralleled clauses can be turned into a complex sentence as follows:

With a total area of 2.25 sq km and a population of 42,000, the ancient city largely maintains its historical appearance of the Ming and Qing Dynasties(1368～1911).D.Adjustment A nation’s thinking pattern is shaped by cultural elements which keep accumulating themselves during the course of history.Chinese people are used to thinking in a comprehensive mode, stressing relationship between parts and they tend to beat around the bush.However, westerners usually think and act in a direct way.In writing, many Chinese writers spend time on minor things which serve as foil for the major parts.In contrast, westerners usually put important parts in main clause or at the beginning of a sentence in a straight –forward way.Here is an example:(SL):襟江带湖的优越地理位置，自然景观与人文景观的和谐交融，组合成 以庐山山体为主，呈环状向四周辐射的风景名胜区。在这座完整的山 岳型风景名胜区内，散布着远古文化遗迹 20 余出。中古文化遗迹 600 余处，景点 474 处，现存摩崖石刻 900 余处，碑刻 300 多块，它们以 瀑泉、山石、气象、植物、地质、江湖、人文、别墅建筑为类型错落 在景区内，与长江、鄱阳湖相依、相融、相映，形成了它鲜明的个性 和独特的魅力，使人们在与自然的亲和中，随深邃的人文而进入一个 崇高的心灵之壤，去认识庐山真面目。

(TL)Its natural and cultural charms are represented by more than 600 cultural relics, 474 scenic spots, and 900 inscriptions on rocky cliffs, 300 tablet inscriptions as well as architectures both in Chinese traditional and foreign styles dotted in the mountain’s scenic areas.E.Analogy In the analogy, cultural information in the source language is transferred into what is familiar to the target readers.Thus it helps the foreign tourists who have little knowledge about Chinese culture to have a rough understanding of what is in the source text, so that the cultural differences are overcome and cross-cultural communication is achieved.A frequently cited example is given bellow to show the employment of this method.(SL):济公劫富济贫，深受贫苦百姓爱戴。

(TL): Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor.In this example, Ji Gong is compared to Robin Hood in the west so that foreign tourists can understand why he was so respected in China.The possible solutions provided above are based on the application of Nida’s functional equivalence theory.The present author sincerely hope the present thesis could be of some help to improve the quality of the translation of Chinese scenic-spot introduction.V.Conclusion With more and more foreign tourists visit the scenic-spots in China, many Chinese scenic-spot introductions have been translated to serve them.However, the translation quality of these scenic-spot introductions is far from satisfaction due to countless spelling mistakes grammar mistakes and cultural misinterpretations, etc.Therefore, the study on the English translation of Chinese scenic-spot introductions is extremely necessary and imperfect.The translation of tourism materials plays a key role in the publication of our touring resources to foreigners.The quality of the translated version influences the tourism industry directly.A good-qualified translated material which the tourists are satisfied with will inspire their interests in a scenic spot, and make them to pay a visit to China finally.However, a bad-translated version does not only reduce their desire to visit China, but also damage the future development of our tourism industry.At present, there are a number of problems existing in the translation of introductions to Scenic Spots.Besides the language mistakes, many other problems are also prevalent.Some versions, which cannot be understood by the foreign tourists at all, are just done word for word from Chinese introduction.Some versions, which indeed read fluently, lost the Chinese culture and wholly become foreignized.In a word, the above problems are all owing to the reason: The translator cannot grasp the spirits of the source text, which include our Chinese culture, and cannot get the correct interpretation of the translation from the analysis of the extratextual factors.In the present thesis, the common problems in the Chinese scenic-spot translation are carefully analyzed and some strategies are provided.In many cases translators overlook cultural default in the source text, resulting in understanding gap for target readers.Thus, they should try to lay a firm foundation of language and get a general and detailed knowledge of two cultures;only in this way are they able to produce a truly precise and satisfied translation and provide a more powerful energy for the development of tourism industry.Works Cited

Eugene, A.Nida.Language, Culture and Translating.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education press, 1993.Eugene, A.Nida.Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.Jin Di & Nida.On Translation.Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press, 2006.Sapir.Edward.Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching And Research Press,2002.Hornby.Snell.Which “global village”? :Societies,Cultures,andPolitical-economic Systems.Westport: Praeger Publisher, 2002.李明，《英汉互动翻译教程》，武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年。王佐良，《文学间的契合》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2005年。文军，《翻译实用手册》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2010。杨忠，《语言学概论》，北京：高等教育出版社，2002年。张春柏，《英汉汉英翻译教程》，北京：高等教育出版社，2003年。

第五篇：英语毕业论文提纲

contents

introduction………………………………………………………………1

1.the common historical background……………………………………1

1.1 international………………………………………………………1

1.2 national…………………………………………………………1

2.the common beliefs of beats and rockers……………………………2

2.1 rebellion against conventions……………………………………2

2.1.1 beats in literature………………………………………………2

2.1.2 rockers in music circles………………………………………3

2.2 ideologies in between……………………………………………4

2.2.1 beatniks were fed up with their government about

the explanations of why things happened……………………4

2.2.2 their same destiny……………………………………………4

2.2.3 beat culture and rock culture were not accepted by

both capitalist and socialist ideologies………………………5

2.3 belief in oriental religion…………………………………………5

2.3.1 beatniks study on chinese buddhism…………………………6

2.3.2 rockers belief in indian buddhism……………………………6

3.their identical lifestyles………………………………………………6